Illusions and Delusions Of The Supernatural and The Occult (1959)

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ILLUSIONS

and

DELUSIONS

of the

SUPERNATURAL

and the OCCULT

Pi.A I K I, S'n :»K a Saijiiu, dkkp in (‘ontempi.atio.n

II<‘ WHS seen near m Hoiiibay tpuiiile. Hr had nothing but a blanket,
an iiinbn^lla. and a beggar's bowl, and be s|><*nt hours in (‘onteinptation
and on washing his long hair

Front is.

ILLUSIONS

and

DELUSIONS

of the

SUPERNATURAL

and the OCCULT

(,The Psychology of the Occult)

by D. H. RAWCLIFFE

Dover Publications, Inc. New York, N. Y.

DEDICATED

to the memory of Alcmaeon, Greek phy¬
sician and disciple of Pythagoras, who,
in the sixth century B.C., was the first
to teach that the brain was the organ of
the mind.

Copyright. All rights reserved.

This new Dover edition first published in 1959
is an unabridged and unaltered rcpublication
of the first edition of the work originally pub¬
lished under the title of The Psifchology of the
OcculL

Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc.
180 Varick Street
New York 14, N. Y.

CONTENTS

Page

I’uniiwoRi) BY Julian Huxi-ey . . 5

Ai-ihor’s Preface . 8

Chapter I Psychical Research ... ... ... ... ... 115

i'hapier '1 The Subconscious Minm» ... ... ... ...

Chapter :i Mental Dissoci.ation ... ... ... ...

Chapter 4 Suihjestion ... ... ... ... ... ... 42

i'haptvr .1 Hysteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 4l>

ilifipter Hypnotism ... ... ... ... ... ...

(i) Hypnotism and its lielation to Sleep ... ... ... 70

(ii) Hypnotic Smnnarnbulism ... ... ... ... ... 75

(iii; Hypnotic Ilallncinations ... ... ... ... ... 78

(iv) Post-Hypnotic Suggestion ... ... ... ... ...

(VI Hypnosis and the Siihconscious Estimation of Time

Intervals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 82

(vi } '• Rapport ” and Negative Hallucinations ... ... 88

(\Ti) Abnormal Effects Produced by Hypnosis ... ... ... 85

(viii) Collective Hypnosis ... ... ... ... ... 88

(XK) EalUicies Concerning Hypnotism ... ... ... ... 8S)

(X) Hypnotism, and the Brain . 1)1

Chapter 7 Hallucinations-Visions and Voices ... ... 94

(i) Auras ”.107

(ii) Warning Hallucinations ... ... ... ... ... 108

(iii) Collective Hallucinations ... ... ... ... ... Ill

(iv) Autoscopic Hallucinations - Doppelgangers and “ Out-

of-the-Body Experiences.,. ... ... ... ... 115

iv) Hypnagogic HallucAnaiions - '‘’‘Faces in the Dark*’' ... 124

C hapter 8 Scryinc; and Crystal Gazino . 128

Chapter 9 Automatic Writing

(i) Table-turning, Ouija and Plamhette . 184

(ii) Automatic Writing .140

C luipter 10 Somnambulism, Fuou ks, and M ui,tiple Person .\i.ity 152

i'hapivr Tuf. Sfirituaustif Mfuium anh rni:

Tranck ... ... ... ... ... ... Hk^

(i) Spirit-Persanalities" . ... ... ... 17.‘i

(ii) Thr Case of Helene Smith - Hi/stericoi Medium . .. ITS

(iii) The Medinmistir Trauee and the Question of . imnesia ... ISH

(iV) The //istriunic . Ibilittf of Mediurns ... ... ... ISS

(v) The Medium and lywolmdarp Cues ... ... ... 11)2

(vi) The Moral Aspect of Mediumship ... ... . I1K5

Chapter 12 Mfntal Hkai.incj

(i) Mirarte-rures : The Pstfchiatrist and the Medicine Man 11)7

(ii) Pspehoifenie Disorders and Pstjehie " Cures ... 200

(iii) Sorne Effects (f Hysteria on the Body's Functions 2();{

(iv) Major Fundional Disorders ... ... ... .. 20.>

(v) The Conditions for Mental Heating ... ... 207

I \ i) Mental llealiny, ... ... ... ... ... 212

(\ ii) The Belief of Pain ... ... ..! ... ... 221

(viii) Symptomatic Cures by Subtlest ion ... ... 22S

(i\| i'omiusion ... ... ... ... ... ... 2H0

( hapter IS Mysiical ExrKUiKNCK \ni) K(’s^.\s^ ... 201'

Chapter 11- Tin: Stkimat\ <>i riiK ('RrciFixioN ... ... 24-;{

The F4videnre for Psyrhosomatic Stiilmata ... 2.'jS

(hapter 1:j !.vc antiihopv

Wire-Wolves and Ti}fer-Men ... ... ... 201

('hapter 10 ’rilF. OlUKN TAL TjIAr.MATI’RCilsrs

(i) Dervishes and Fakirs

(ii) Yof^a .

(iii) Burial .{live ... ... ... ... ... .. 2SS

(i \') The Lamas of Tibet ... ... ... ... ... 2ST

{'hapter 17 Fun. NVai.kinf. ... ... ... ... ... . 21)1

('hapter IS Tin: Indian Hui*i:'r«K'K ... ... ... .. 21)7

('hapter 11) Fuimitivf, Sii amams.m and Mddkun SiMin'i'rAi.i''M

(i) Shamanism ... ... ... ... ... . 002

(ii) Spiritualism ... ... ... ... ... ... ;{().>

(hapter 20 Tin:‘'P iiv.sicai. Fiikndmkna 'ok riii: Sj&anck Kddm SOI)
( hapter 21 Ki saima Pai.i.adino ... ... ... ... ... S20

(hapter 22 Watkh Divininc and Otiikr Forms ok “Dowsino" SSS

(i) The Autheritieity of Donshiff ... ... ... ... SS7

(ii) The " Modus Operandi " of Dousing ... ... ... SH

(iii) The Problem of Dinvsiuff Tests . ... ... :US

rage

(ivj Hod Reactions and Metrical Conventions .

(v) HadiestJtesia .355

(iv) Medical Hadiesthesia . ... ... ... 3!»2

Chapter 23 The “ Spo.ntankour Phenomena '

(i) Telepathyy Clairvoyam'e and Precognition . 3(>7

(ii) Dreams .3(iH

(iii) The Psychic Anecdote . 370

(iv) HauntingSy Ghosts and Apparitions . 372

(v) Poltergeists .377

(liapter *24 Ksp Experiments ano the Problem of Sensory

Cues.370

(i) Sensory Ilyperacuity .382

(ii) Sensory Cues .385

(iii) Telepathy and hieomoloT Movements .393

(iv) Ideomotor Movements and KSP Tests ... ... ... 399

Chapter 25 ‘'Involuntary Wihspekino'' and Auditory

IIyperaulity .404

Ii) The Case of Jlga K .410

(ii) Hypenwasia and the IJnconscions Perception of Sensory

\^ues .!. 417

(iii) The Sixth Sense of the Blind .422

Chapter 20 Criticism of the American ESP Experimenters 420

(i) Cariatioths and Declines in ESP Scaring Hates . 443

(ii) Recording Errors in PK and ESP Experiments ... 448

(iii) Conclusion ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 453

i'hapter 27 The Telepathy Experiments oe Dr. S. G. Soal... 45(>
(i ) A Rational Explanation of SoaFs Experiments in " Pre-

cognitive Telepathy ” 403

(ii) The Experiments mth Counters .408

(iii) Soars Telepathy Experiments XVith Mrs. Steumrt ... 471

(iv) Dr. Soal on “ Involuntary Whispering 473

Chapter 2S 'riiE Locs ical Status ofI'ei.i’.pathy and Anaiaxioits

Concepts .479

Appendix Further Experiments in Long-Distance Telepathy ... 493

Glossary of Terms.495

Bibliography .5l(i

Index.541

ILLUSTRATIONS

In Half-tone

Pkite 1 Sruijv of a Sadiit dkfi* iv Conckntkation Fronlinpicrt

Plate U ‘ Kacks IN Tin: Dark ' ... . fachiff pnffe I t

Plate 111 ' Kctopkasm ’ ... ... ... ... ... ... I'*

Plate IV .Mi'.ditatino SAmni ... ... ... ... ... n>-

PUite V A Fakir Livin(; o.v a Bkd of 'riioitNS ... ... ... 10:1

Plate VI \ Yocii Dkmonstratks a Stranof. Mofur.v

TORTION ... ... ... ... ... ...

Plate VII .\ Yocii Vkrsion OF TiiK LkvitxVTIon Arr ... .. ’ioo

Plate VIll How tuk Divininc; Ron is Hkli) (1) ... . •'iiiO

Plate IX Mow thf Divining Hon is Hkld (2) ... ..

Plate X Mow TiiK Divining Hon IS HiiH) (;i) ... ...

Plate XI ‘ Zknf.r ' OR ^ ESP' (’Alins ... ... ... ...

In the Text

Samplks of an ‘ Ui;i'ra-MA iiTiAN ’ WiiiTTF.N Lanouagf
(’OMFOSKD During Tranck bv tiff. Hkmarkablf.
Medium Helj^n^ Smith ... ... ... ... ...

The Most Celebrated ('ase in the Hi.stokv im-
Mypnoti.sm ... ... ... ... ... ... *^22

Painless Operation Before the .Advent of Ciir.on-
oFORM. ... 2 ' 2 :\

Acknowledgments

./ By permission of Mrs. F. F. Leanings from the collection in
the Society for Psychical Research.

11 By courtesy of the executors of Dr. A. von Schrenck-Sotzing
and Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschnft.

VI By courtesy of Mr P. T. Plunkett and the lllmslraled
Idindon A'ctu.s*.”

FOREWORD

.H'l.IAN HUXLF.Y

M R. llAWrLIFFK luis carried out a v^crv iisctul task in
assembling this cxttaisivc body of data on the Psychology of
the Occult, lie has drawn his Jict very wid(% to includ<* such
[)henoincna as \va1(T-divining, lire-walking, and the Indian
rope-tri(;k. together with spiritualisin, hyj:)Uotisni. and
psychical rescarcli in general.

His general attitudi^ is -rightly a. highly critical ojie.
In th<^ first place, he draws attcution to the numerous cases
in which fraud has >)een prov^ed or is obviously to be pre¬
sumed on Ihe evidence. In the second place, he reminds
\is of the iinportauee of dissociation, autohypnosis, hallu¬
cination, and various phenomena of the subconscious;
these often provid<i strange and impressive (experiences,
which, however, arc interpreted as of supernatural origin.
His discussion of the role of hysteria and allied states in
produ(;ing various kinds of oc^cult ” or miraculous pheno¬
mena is particularly extensive.

Above all, it is important to be reminded of the widespread
and dangerous tendency -very prououncjed even in this
scientific; age—to seek for reassurance in the; supernatural and
the mysterious : the protean will to believe in occailt pow ers.
As illustrating this, I remember vividly an incident of some
twenty-odd years ago. T wais on(‘ of a team who wei’e iii-
v(;stigating various mediums on behalf of a newspaper. On(‘
medium was caught red-handed, masquerading as St. Theresa
who WHS supposed to have been materialised ” w^hilc he
was lied up in a chair. Yet one spiritualist present said that
her faith was not shaken, and within a few weeks of his public
exposure, the ni(;dium w^as again in action, and wc had been
accusefl by a spiritualist journal of having planted th(' <;vi-
deiice on the poor innocent , . .

Mr. Rawrclitfe is very fair in acknowledging the genuine¬
ness of various extra-ordinary phenomena, siu;h as the suc¬
cesses of water-diviners, or the ('iinobling effects of certain

nvyslical experiences. But I must eont'ess that 1 cannot
follow him ill sti^matizinfr studies on telepathy, clairvoyance,
etc., ns ‘‘ occult research ”, unfit to be admitted to our uni-
vcTsities. Hypnotism was for loiif^ rc|y;arded as mere qaek-
ery. and if modern psychical research has some of its origins
in sujierstition. it is also inspired by the desire for new
knowledge.

To my w^ay of thinking, one of the great needs of our time?
is to discover means for coping with the problems of quantity
and value : after all, our most important experiences ar<‘
qualititive, and wlicn everything is rediuxxl to mathematics,
something essential has evaporated from reality. Until
we can do this, we shall be in danger of wliat may be called
the “ nothing-hut ' fallacy- of assuming that the higher
can lie exjilained in terms of tin* lower from which it happens
to have in part originated. Mr. Baweliffe, I am sure, real¬
izes this, but I Avould likc‘ to see the point made more ex¬
plicitly. These mystical experiences may involve mechan¬
isms such as infantile regression, hallucination, and so on ;
but nonetheless can, wh<ai combined with certain kinds of
conscious discipline, be ‘‘ennobling ”, as Mr. Rawc^liffe says
- snjK rnormal instead of subnormal or abnormal.

It may be that the methods of the exact sciences by them-
sclv<*s ar(^ insufli(Mcnt in llicir field. What I would like to stic
is a full study of humnn j)ossibilitifS, taking account of values.

I am quite jnepanul to find that certain techniques, such
as those of Kajah Yoga involving wntlidrawal from sensc-
inqu'cssions, may reveal new' j)ro])erti(‘s of mind, or. to put it
more sei<‘ntifieally, result in new modes of mental activity.
After all. mental activity has been <‘normously intensilied
during evolution. And wv simply do not yet know^ what is
tlie ))asic relation b<*l\vee?i imaita} activity and physicral brain
activity. It is iwtremely important to tr\’ to fijid out whether
luuhr certain conditions nuaital activity may be detached
from j)l)ysi(*al ; we (*an b<‘ sur<‘th.at many [)ossibiliti .‘s of mind
or nu ntal activity ar(; still un(‘xplor(‘d.

However, tliis is for the future. Meanwhile, h^t me repeat
that Mr. Haweliffe h.as performed a valuable services w^ith his
critical analysis of a vast and dinieult field. AikI his warn¬
ings against mystery-mc)ngering and uma^ason deserv<‘ to lx
widely read and taken to heart.

K ' A'A’011 LKDGME^ TS

M y THANKS jhkI n[riitituclo are clue first and Jdreniost to
my typist, Monica Hyde, who was burdened with the un*
enviable task of deciphering a virtually ille^^ible manuscript.
This she did with unfla^^in/:^ cheerfulnc'ss, ellieic'uey and
almost clairvoyant insight.

I desire^ also to convey my apprecifition to the Sociidy
for Psychical licscarch for the unlimited usc‘ of its unicpic
library and to the Society's secTolarv, Miss K. M. Horsc‘ll.
for her unfailing courtesy and the r(‘adiness with whicli she
supervisc*d a flow of* several hundivd books through the })ost.

I furtlua* wish to pay tribute to the* etlieiency and dispatc*h
with whicdi the* staff of the (’ornwall founty Library at-
tcaided to iny requests for books; some of these weia^ dilli-
cult to obtain, and it is fitting that acknowledgments should
be 2 >ublicly expressed to the librarians of the nation-wid<*
system of lencling libraric's whose traiiu‘d efliciency often
means so imieh to tliose engaged in any form literarv
rc^scarcli, I am indebted to ASLIB for mneh useful informa¬
tion. My thanks are also due to Dr. P. L. Brangwin, of
Guy's Hospital, for readingtlirough and elu^eking the medical
passag<‘s ill Chapters 12 and 14 ; and to Dr. 1). .1. West for
certain statistical data pertaining to Chapter 27, and for
several lengthy and fruitful discussions on a wide' range of
subjects.

I am indebted to the publish<‘rs and aiitliors concerned
for ])iTmission to quote from the folUm ing : The Mccliaiiism
of Thoughts Imagery and Hallucinalion. by J. Kosett (Colum¬
bia rDiversity Press, 193U) ; Jntroduciion to Abnormal
Psychology, by V. E. Eishcr (The MacMillan Conipan\. N.Y.,
Ift.ST ) : Adventures of the Mind by A. Castiglioni (Alfred A.
Knopf. 1947).

I am. also greatly ind(‘bled to Thir American Volklorc
.Society and t he antlior for pc^rmission to cpiob‘ from I he
pajKi* “ Lyeanlliropy as a Psyeliie Mechanism", by N.
Fodor. in the Journal of American Fidklorc (1945) ; and to
tlie Society for Psychical Bcscarch (Londoid IV»r ])crmissinn
to (piotc from tlu‘ article “ \V<?rc-Tigcrs of the Assam Hills"
b\ C. P. Mills, in tin' Society's Journal (1922).

PREFACE

TTuk uiu;k I’OWAiiiJS MYSTICISM, thc occult and the
supernatural is timdamcutal in human nature ; to whatever
degree of sopliistiealiou the individual may attain, he can
seldom quite free himself from it. Today most people
wonder, when fa(‘(‘d with a])pareiitly well authenticated
cases of the siipernatura) or “ parapsychological ” reported
in the press, in books or in the vast literature of p.sj'cliieal
research, whether there might not after all b(' “ something
in it.” Reason may prevail, but a vague douljt may still
persist. The mind searches for a natural explanation of
the reported event, but not being able to hnd one dismisses
it as just one of those mystifying things which have no ex¬
planation. It is to that numerous class of intelligent people
who desire a rational ex]>lanation of the mysterious world
of modern (Xfcullism that this book is primarily addressed.

The principal theme running through the present \olume
is the role played })y various types of psychological anomaly
in thc creation and perj)etiiation of occult beliefs and prac¬
tices. This is oir the beatcai track of medical psychology;
yet it is thc aiiMior’s hope that thc present study, although
written primarily for the intere.sted layman, may prf>ve to
be of some value to psy(*hoIogy and anthropology in an
important but much neglected field.

No attempt has been made to enter into the question of
such groundless occult practices as astrology, palmistry or
similar naive forms of divination, except where they are
incidental to the main theme. On the other hand crystal-
gazing is included since this method of divination is connected
with th(‘ interesting problem of visual hallucinations, and
Iherefore represents one of those frequent instances hi which

s

Hii unusual psychological plienoniencm is crerlited witli a
supernatural significance through ignorance of the true
explanation.

Little mention is made of i)riinitive superstitions, ()ccult
rituals or native magic except when they have a direct
connection with abnormal psychology. On the other hand
a considerable sc(!tion has been devoted to those forms (»f
occultism whi(*h are still practised in Africa and the Orient,
and which still mystify the great majority of Europeans,
c.g. the Indian rope-trick, lycanthropy, and certain practices
of the oriental dervishes, yogis, fakirs and the Tibetan
lamas.

Another class of occultism which has arisen as a result of
ignorance concerning the more unusual functions of the
human mind includes automatic writing, “ mystical ex¬
periences,” Avater-divining, faith healing and the occult in
relation to hysteria, suggestion, ha Illuminations and hy p¬
notism, These have l.ecu dealt with at length.

Finally, the entire range of psychical research has bc*en
surveyed from the spiritualistic ‘‘ phenomena ” of the scanec-
room to modern university research in telepathy, clairvoyance
and psychokinesis.

It is over forty years since Podmore, Jastrow and Lloyd-
'Fuckett published their volumes dealing with the fallacies
underlying psychical research, and since then no major
work has appcar<*d which can be regarded as their sucemessor
in this field. The present work may be regarded as an at¬
tempt to fill the vacuum. At no other time is such a w ork
more needed than at tlie present w^heu occultism, under the
guise of scientific research, is invading the precincts of our
most distinguished universities.

Lloyd-Tuckett’s criticisms of contemporary experiments
III telepathy in his Evidence for the Supernatural^ excellent
though they were, are no longer sufficiently up-to-date to
meet the requirements of the present situation. Jastrow'
and Podmore failed to check or even to influence' the
popular beliefs in spiritualism and other brands of occult¬
ism which still hold so many otherwise intelligent people in
thrall. Occult “ research ” today is assuming alarming
proportions—a trend which started when the emphasis in
psychical research shifted from the s<^anee-room t(» the

9

)aVw>rHtory, from spirit communications and ectoplasm to
the more methodical experiments in telepathy, clairvoyance
and psychokinesis.

Only recently' Profe ssor A. C. Hardy of Oxford University,
a w(‘ll-known zoologist, declar(‘d Ix^fore the British Associa¬
tion for the Advancement of Science his bc'lief that the
cxistt^nce of telepathy had been seientilieally demonstrated.
Tlic professor inforivKHl the learned body of scientists that
telepathy, or “ th<‘ communication of one mind with another
by means other than by the ordinary scuises,” might well
alter our ideas on evolution if it were found to he a factor in
moulding the patterns of behaviour among members of a
s])eei(N. Yet there is in fact no real scientific basis for belief
in a metaphysical communion of mir)ds, as the following
pages will amply demonstrate.

It is when we come to instamns where the facilities of
national universiti(‘s are put at tlu* disposal of the occult
“ res(‘areher ” that one realises the extent t.o which occultism
is ])evvadmg modern eviliurc*. PVllowships in psycliical
research have long been held in the American Universities
of Harvard and Stanford. The College of th(? Pity of New
York ))ermits its psychology laboratory to be used for psychi¬
cal experiments. Duk(* University has its own Parapsycho¬
logy Laboratory. In England, Pambridge University
possesses the Perrotl Studentship in Psychi(*al Research,
while London University has officially espo\jsed the cause
of oeeiilt research by providing financial aid for experiments
in metaphysical telepathy. The Pontinental Universities
of Groningen, Bonn, Leyden and Utrecht have all given
official sanction to psychical research within their precincts.
It has b(‘cn recently reported that a department of psychical
research has been established hi the IJniversity of Buenos
Aires.

Thtr spread of occult research to modern universities is in
itself a serious matter. But when such rescfireh is blessed
by the granting of academic degrees it cannot fail to arouse
something like dismay. In recent years London University
has granted a Ph.D. and a D.Sc. for a thesis on clairvoyance
and for experiments in metaphysical telepathy respectively ;
Panibridge has accepted a thesis on “ paranormal eog-

j ifM-a.

10

nition ” which gained its author an M.D.; Oxford lias
granted a well-known advocate of spiritualism a Ph.i).
for a thesis (unpublished so far as the present author can
verify) on the supernatural or “ paranormal ” powers of
cognition possessed by certain mediums. I)uk(‘ lhii\ crsity
was the first univcTsity to grant a Doctorate for r(‘scar(di
into the occult powers of the mind ; this honour was won
)>y J. P. Thomas whose thesis, published liuder the title of
Beyond Normal Cognition^ dealt with his inve^stigations
among spiritualistic mediums and clairvoyants. The saiuc
IJnivcTsity has since granted another Doctorate for re¬
search in telepathy, clairvoyance and psychokinesis.

The latest scat of learning to lend its support to oce\jlt
research at, the time of writing is the University of Melbourfic,
Australia. The* Melbourne University Society for Psychical
llcs(‘areh has for its j)resident the Senior Lecturer in Logic
and Scientific Method at the university —a })aradox which
excellently demonstrates tlie extraordinary appeal of modern
occultism in its guise of scientific rest^areh.

Modern ])syeiueal researchers and parapsychologists pre¬
fer to ignore or explain away the fact that psychical research
has its origins in magic, shamanism and supcTstition. In
England and America term “psychical research*' was
adopt(‘d at the turn of the century as a. designation foi'
investigations concerning the occult and (‘crtain psycho¬
logical afiomalies which had given ris(‘ to occult beliefs.

It is significant to note, however, that in Germany tin-
term “ scientific occultism ” was adopted. The njost im¬
portant psychical research body termed itself The Society
for Scientific Occultism, whilst the most advanced of the
(ierinan psychical research publications wcait by the name
of Die Okkulte Welt, By 1920, how^twer, the more pre¬
tentious tcTm “psychical rest'arch ” had begun to make
its appearance after the English and American style ; and
following the publication of Oesterreich’s Grundbegrifje der
ParajKsychoIogie^ a ncAv term, parapsychology, became
inereasingly used, to spread eventually to America.

Recognition of the fact that spiritualism, telepathy and
allied subjects belonged to the sphere of the occult nev(*r
extended to Englancl and America. It remained confined

‘ Die Okkulte Welt, No. 2.5, 1021.

11

Iargel\ to Germany. That tliis was so is much to be re-
^Totted, for there can be no doubt that the more technical
terminology which has come into use has been a very potent
factor in gaining the sympathetic consideration of academic
and scientific circles for whom the term “ occultism ’
would otherwise be anathema.

It is time that the fallacies underlying psychical research
were revealed in their entirety. It is an urg<?nt necessity
that the methodological and psx'chological bias lying behind
all the published reports of experiments in telepathy, clair«
Vf)yancc and psychokinesis should be exposed and their
pseudo-scientific status clearly demonstrated. It is only
through an understanding of the tru(‘ nature of the factors
involved that the insidious growth of modern occultism
can be checked-—whether it takes the form of crude super¬
naturalism or the application of pseudo-scientific methods
to outworn superstitions refined and elaborated into specu¬
lative metaphysical theories. If the present x'olume con¬
tributes in only a small way to the repulse ol th(‘ ever ad¬
vancing tide of supernatural belief which present-day
psychical res(*areh keeps in motion, it xvill hav(* adequat(‘ly
fulfilled the purpose for which it was written.
pelynL II* Kaxvcjji ri.

Cornwall.

12

ChapUr One .
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH

t^ KTjKF IN TUi: occuiiT is as old as mankind. To primitive
man the forces of nature were the external manifestations
of capricious and fearful spirits which had constantly to be
placated and supplicated. As his mental development
advanced the spirits became gods and a special caste, the
priests, evolved, whose special function it was to intercede
between the rulers of the elements and the ordinary man.
With the arrival of the priest the magic and incantations
of the medicine-man took on a more conventional and cere¬
monial form; but always the basis of magic, and coju-
munication with the gods, depended on the vague but strong
belief in the transcendental powers of human thought once
certain conditions of ritual had been fulfilled.

Such natural tendencies towards belief in the occult
which exist in the human mind always exert themselves
most strongly when the powers of reason remain unde¬
veloped. The individual, baffled by his own ignorance,
tends to take the line of least resistance. Desiring some
kind of knowledge concerning what he sees and hears he
constructs his own logic of magical powers and mystical
beings. Yet the reality of magic and the occult for man
would have little substance were it not that the individual
appears to see all around him proof of their existence. His
own superstitions and expectations, leading him to illusory
interpretations of natural events, generate the proof, thereby
providing him still further stimulus to belief in the super¬
natural. From primitive occultism to modern experiments
in telepathy this trend is discernible ; as Podmore excellently

18

Tiik PsYcii(>rA)c;Y nv the Oc’ci/i/r

M

observed, the (existence of h belief is the most j>ntei)t
factor in the creation of its own evidence/’'

It is a fact, invariably discounted by psychical rcseaichers
Iheinselves, that psychical research, or para})sye]n»loyy,
has its j»enesis in the myths, the folklore, the inaoie and
mystieism of pre-civilisation. There is no lar^^e cnHural
chasm between the beliefs aiul superstitions ]MTtaini!i«f to
the Druidic cir(‘les of prehistoric liritain and tlu' ^ul)(T-
natural beliefs and “ tlu^ories ” ))(Tp(‘tuati‘d amongst the
(MuiiUMd respectability of the London Society for Psyeliical
Ueseareh. The differeiuT lu'fween ecudain practice's of med-
i(‘val witc'heraft and tin* ('xjx rimeiits in “ psy(*hokint sis “
carried out within university preeiiu'ts in North ('an»liha
is lar^(‘ly e)ne of d(‘j^ree.

There is, in bri<*f, an unbroken liislorieal (‘onlimiitv
observable* betwe'cn the sup(‘rstitie)eis e)e*eullism of lonner
timers anel the more sojdiisticatcd e)e‘cult,ism which lle)urislie s
at the pre'sent time uneler the e^uphemistic titles of psycliie'al
reseaI’ch, metapsychie*s and i)arapsychole>fry. I'he* maj^ie
mirror wheTean the oldem-time n(K*re)mane*eT claimesl to be*
able to se'c the past, the present anel the future , lias its moelern
parallel in present-elay psychiead re'seairch ceine'e pts e>l elair-
voyane*e. The mafrie* talisman which bestoweel upon the
wc'arer poweT e)vcr the Ibrea's eif nature pe>ssesse‘s a modern
e‘ejuivalcne*e in the tedekinetie '"phenomena eif the- s|)irit-
ualistic seance and the jisycheikinetie* " e-xpe-riments of
Dr. Joseph lianks Hhine.

In the newer e)e*cullism of parapsyehe>le)fTy teehnieal-
senmelin^r names have replaced the age-edd e*e>lle)f|uialisms.
Prophecy and divination of the futures bee-emu'S “ jire-ceij;^^-
nition The warleick’s art of descrying the past bce*e>mes
' poste‘e>gnitie)n.” Tlic soothsayer’s reputed facult\ eif
seeing events at a distanc*e becomes " para/iornial e-eig-
nition ” or clairvoyance. The witch’s ability to read the
thoughts or influence the actions of other people at a dis¬
tance becomes telepathy.” With this change of nomen¬
clature disappear also the old incantations, spells and
farraginous ritual, leaving, the psychical rescandier bc-

* Telepathic IlaUucinatiom^ 1909.

Prxii 11

Fuis IN THI UaKK '

4 vivid impression of u hxpiiagogic Iih line mat ion pdiiitf.<l in
•olours direclh .ifter full «ividkening {Su Past 12'it

1*1.Ml-: III. ’* Kc’Tiij*i..\sm ■■

* Telvplaslic Eiiianalifiii *' issiiiiiu rriiiii the inoiitii of the faiiious l*olisli iiiediuiii, Stanislava 1»
' iirpiViltu t'dfrom *’ (iesammeUr .luj'satzf uir Htrrtipsffcholo^ie^^'^

>Sie Chapter * 21 * •

Psychical Rf.search

15

lievcs, the transcendental faculties of tlie mind unhampered
by the superstitions of the past!

The sincerity of psychical r(*seareh(‘rs and parapsycholo¬
gists is not to be denied. The vast majority of them have
little to gain by a mere pretene(\ They beli<‘ve that their
methods of investigation are scientific and would seldom
agr(?c with Jastrow that in psychical research the term
scientific implies intention and ambition rather than conform¬
ity to an exacting logical standard. Yet a perusal of the
literature of psychical research coinplete‘ly reveals its occult¬
ist origin. As Julian Huxley has sardonically observed :

T)u* orthodox natural scientist aa^io nuiy venture into the held of
psychical research is confronted with a literal lire portentous in bulk
and liliisivc in <juality. It ranges from tin* naivete of ghost-stories
and hauntiiigs and the prattluigs of the* more ehildi&^h forms of
spiritualism, with their babble about * Summevland,’ to the elabora¬
tion of <!ross-eorrcspondenee tests and the statisti(*al validation of
telepathic* results. It runs off at one side into folk-lore, at another
into psychopathology.*

Anyone reading through the journals and proceedings
of the various societies for psychical research cannot help
being struck by the fantastic jumble of views presented in
their pages. Here the ignorant and the naive jostle* shoulder
to shoulder with the soientifically eminent. Levitation,
“ materialisations ”, spirit - communications, ectoplasm,
faith-healing, poltergci.sts, and oriental thauinaturgy form
a weird and wonderful background to weighty pronounce¬
ments by world-famous savants—pronouncements clearly
coloured, for the most part, by that irrational bias towards
belief in an alluring world of the supernatural which is
latent in all of us. Beneath the occult x'encer, however,
lies a dim underworld of psychological antomatism. sug¬
gestion, hypnosis, hallucination, neurosis, hysteria, func¬
tional malady, sensory-hyperacuity, delusion, fraud, pre¬
stidigitation, and limitless credulity.

There is another side to psychical research, however,
exemplified by the lengthy list of spiritualistic mediums
who have been proved charlatans by indefatigable in-

’ Snence ami Psychical Rfftearch, The We<*k-en<l Review, a, 278.

li\ The Psychoeoc’.y of the Occm/r

v(‘sligators. It was the London Socarty lor Psychical
Resoarcjh who exposed tlu' founder of Theosophy, Madame
Blavatsky, as the blatant sensationalist and unscrupulous
trickster she proved to be. And among the nunu^rous
publications of psychical research socictiers have ap])cared
a not inconsiderable numb<‘r of papers, articles and r('vic*ws
by 1‘ront rank medical psychologists concerning the various
phenomena of abnormal psychology. Psychical resc^arch
('xperiments in telepathy and clair\oyance havc^ grown
increasingly rigid and methodical and, while such experi-
mciils arc still very unsatisfactory, the (*oncomitant stat¬
istical methods of evaluation are of a high order, and may bt^
said to have made a contribution of their own to the science*
of probability mathematics.

Despite all that can be laid to the* credit of psychical
researchers and para{)sychologisls, it is not really surprising
that scientific opinion nmiains sceptical as to whether
psychical research itself is to be considcTcd a hgitimatc
branch of stud}'. Uriefly the “ field of study ” in psychical
research is the mysterious, the odd, the apparently mirac¬
ulous—in fact anything at all that may be int(*rpreted
by the lay mind as due to the operation of occult or s\iper-
natural forces.

l‘an any serious study be the outcome of such a cross¬
current of subjective factors? The majority of psycholo¬
gists w'ould answer no. They point out that the arihnm
of psychical research and parapsychology lies in the depths
of the past, in myth and superstition, in magie, in the mys¬
teries of ancient priestly cults; above all in the inherent
psycdiological tendencies of the human mind to attribute
to th(* agency of unseen powers those phenomena which it
do(\s not understand. They conclude from this that the
gn^at majority of the probl(*ms of psychical nisearch an*
raised by virtue of the peculiar bias or mental set of the
psychical investigator, who, believing for various reasons
in the possibility of mysterious occult forces in nature,
seeks to find practical instances of it in order to justify his
beliefs ; this approach generally tends to make him ignore
or disrespect other approaches which possess the merit
of coh(*rcncc within the normal scientific scheme of things.

Psyc hResearch

17

Ac!cej>lRnc*t‘ of psyohic‘al rc^scarc‘h as a lejritiiiujte of

study, obscTve the psyeholoKists, would only se rve 1o per*
petuate outmoded supernatural beliefs by judviny thc iu the
stamp of semu-offieial sanction.

There is not the l(‘ast doul)t that tlic psycholof^ists’
view is a rational one'; for ttiere is every reason to believe
that all the problems of psychical rc\s(^arc‘h can be resolved
in tcTius of modern psyeholojjy once the facets pcTtainiufr
to those* probIc*ms have been dc*finit(dy c hieidated. Owinf^
to the j)eeuliar mental bias prevailing in occult res(*areh,
however, it often needs eonsidc*rable acumen to arrive* at
the })lain unvarnished facts which lie hiddc*n in tlie shoals
of tc'udentious rej)orts prc*sent(‘d for our perusal. The facts
are so often reported so as to coincide witli tlie ide as and ])rc-
eoncTptions whicJi have c^volv'^ed in rc^sponse to the psychical
rc'searcher’s spctcial bias. Fundamentally the psy(*hical
researcdier’s aim is not to sctvc* the c*ause of sciemee, but to
satisfy a yearning curiosity which for him remains insati¬
able-insatiable for the reason that he can seldom reconcile?
his yearning for the supernatural with liis desire to be*
rational; neitlic^r cian be satisfied. lienee the psychical
researcher selects his evidence; lie is evc*r on the* qui vive
for facts and authoritative pre)noune*(*me‘nts Ayhieli are
favourable to his bc'liefs and theories.

Firm adlie?re?iice to supernatural or paranormal “ h^ po-
thesers ” prevents the parapsychologist from investigating
possibilitie*s more in accord with f)rineiples of orthodox
science. This bias is often accompanieel by a tendency
to regard as unenlightene*d see^pties all those whe) disagree
with his own view^s. He will charge his opponents with
being ‘‘ unscientific ” in their attituele^ towarels his beliefs
and th(‘ories- a charge wdiieh is absurd as it is naive, since*
upon analysis even his most elaborate theories turn out
to be nothing more than simple metaphysical speculations.
Nevertheless as long as he believes in the possibility of trans¬
cendental mental powers the psychical researcher or para¬
psychologist wdll continue to carry out his “ experiments,”
and he will continue to mak(? the charge of narrow^ dog¬
matism against those who regard his claims with incred¬
ulity.

18

Tur. Psychology of thk Occui/r

And yet, as Jastrow lonjr ago pointed out, the ineredulity
of the psyehologist towards psychical r(\scarch si)rings,
not from an a priori jiud<i:nieut that paranormal phenomena
arc inipossibl(\ ])ijt from an extensive knowledge' of psycholo¬
gical causes of error. The psychologist realises that the
paranormal phenomena reported by the ])sychical researcher
ar(» subsume(t by obscure and com])l(‘x [)sy.chol()gical pro¬
cesses which tend to assume the pattern of the mould into
wliieh they are forced : he (‘orreolly observes that these
proc(‘sscs will never be understood so long as the mould
is cast according to a system of supernatural beliefs which
the intelh'ct has long outgrown.*' '

Reduc(‘d to its fundamentals psychical research is con¬
cerned, \n the main, with tla^ whol(‘ gamut of erroneous
supernatural beliefs and occult pra(ti(*(‘s which from time
imnu‘morial have been evoked by the various idiosyncracies
and aberrations to which the human mind is liablt*. Hyp¬
notism, Iiallucinations, automatism. hysteri(‘al syndromes,
the more dramatic* effe(*ts of suggestion and what may be
described as the ejuirks and ca])ric*(‘s of ttie subconscious
mind- tlu'sc have* always been regarded as manifestations
of the occult or otherwise attributed a supernatural signi¬
ficance. In the past insanity was regardt'd as (‘vidence
of diabolical infhi(*n(*e or divine favour; and although this
belief has died out in civilised societies thnr arc ,still 'millions
zvho heluve in the supernatural si^uifieauee of certain less
severe types of psychological anomaly.

To the superstitious or ignorant person a hallucinatory
figure is a ghost, whereas to the psychologist it remains
merely a visual hallucination. To the believer in ‘‘the*
psychic " (‘crtain odd coincidences of thought are intcr-
peted as due to telepathy; odd noises in the house are
attributed to i)e)ltcrgeists ; automatic writing be'comes the
means of ce)ntact with dead persons ; Jiallue*inatory imagC‘S
in a crystal are* attribute*d to e*lairv"ewancc; therape*utic
sugge*stie)n become\s faith healing; hysteirie*al changes of
personality repre\sent the invasion e^f a pe'rson’s mind b} a
“ spirit-personality hypnotism is a nianilV'station of the
supernatural powers of the* mind; idcomatic move*ments

* K.K.A., \ature. niaa, p. 802.

PSYC'HICAI. RkSEAKCII

19

(»f a pcnduliini conlcT pow<Ts of divination ; dreams which
possess a coincidental similitude to future events arc pro¬
phetic or “ precognitive and so on.

It would take several pages to make* a eoniprehcnsiv^e
list of superstitions and occidt h(‘liefs which may hav<t
originated from, and been perpetuated by, the less common
psychological vagaries of the human mind. Dreams,
hallucinations, hysterical syndromes, psychological auto¬
matisms. hypnotism and the manifold phenomena of sug¬
gestion ha\(‘ ahvays b(‘en surrounded by an aura ol‘ the
supernatural, and for many people still remain indissolubly
linked with occ\dt eoiK*cptions. vSueh people an' unable
to see any distinction between a supernatural event and an
unusual or obscure ps\ (biological phenomenon. For them
prophecy, chair\o\aiict' and thought-transfc'rcncc par¬
take of the same general nature as hypnotism, hallucina¬
tions and automatic writing; all are ‘‘ psychic phenomena ”,
savouring of the ” paranormal ” powers of the human
mind.

From the historical standpoint there is a fairly constant
and observable relation b('tw^ecn the reports of miracles or
supernatural eveuts and the beliefs and cultural patterns
of the time. The beliefs and cultural patterns of the agc'
largely dictate the form or type of supernatural event
reported; primitive magic, medieval witchcraft and modern
psychical researcbi are all examples of this tendenev.

During the Victorian era the emphasis in psychical re¬
search, as well as in the occult in literature, w'as on appari¬
tions, hauntings, poltergeists, dopplegangers, dreams, crystal
gazing, second sight ”, death-bed visions and communi¬
cation with tlie spirits of the dead.

Correspondingly, present-day psyeliieal research reflects
the modern scientific' outlook, if not the scientific spirit,
and the main focus of interest is now’ directed upon senii-
sciemtifie experiments in telepathy, clairvoyance, pre¬
cognition and “ psychokinesis These are modern versions
of the ancient beliefs in the omnipotence of thought. To¬
day they are classified under the collective title of “ psi-
phenomena ” by English and American parapsychologists.

“ Psi-phenomena ” are easily equated wdth simple magic.
If one person can simultaneously influence another’s mind

*20

The Psychology of the Occ ult

jit a distance, if certain persons can beeoine cognizant of
distant (^vents or foresee the future without the int(TV''ention
of the sensory faculties, if some individuals can influence
the movement of tangi))le objects solely by an effort of the
will, then we must ace(‘jd the fact that Magic must take
an important place amongst the psycliologi(‘al scieiu'cs!
W(‘ should no longer be able to avoid the (‘onclusion that
we are all potential wielders of supernatural pow(T. Un¬
fortunately the experiments upon whieh the psychical re¬
searcher rests his claim to have estal)lish(‘d Ihe existc'iiec
of psi-phe?K)rnenaare all, without exce ption, open to
severe criticism, as a ])('rusal of later chapters will amply
demonstrate.

The standards of evidenc(‘ must b(‘ drawn Irom the re-
cognis(‘d sciences and, despite the claims to the contrary,
this ])roviso is seldom, if ever, fulfilled in psy(diical r(‘search.
In the few cases where the recpiirement s of orthodox scientific
methods have been uneejuivocally satisfied, the results of
tlie (‘xperirnents have almost invariably been negative.
The psychical researcher appears to belieV(‘ that the stan¬
dards of the psychological sciences are sufficient to establish
universal acceptance of new scientific prineipl(‘s. This is
very far from being the (‘ase. In order to establish the
(‘xistence of any general scientific jirinciple, certain incon¬
i'overtible facts must first be proved. And the standard
criteria must be those of the exact sciences; in no other way
<‘an the scientist be certain that the experiments have been
properly controlled.

As scientific“ psi-phenomcna ” possess no existence.
Can it be said, however, that telepathy et alia have any
scientific significance considered as hypotheses or as th(‘ories ?
The .answer again is no. Such theories, being metaphysical
in design and scope, can ipso facto possess no scientific
application whatsoever. Confined to the sphere of meta¬
physics or mysticism, they may be regarded as pcrfcctiy
legit iniate ; but they cannot be expected to take the place
of proper scientific theory. Even if the parapsychologist
were able to establish his claims regarding the existence
of plKUiomena whieh contravene the acci^pted principles
of modern seieiuic, it would be futih*. to (‘xplain such pheno¬
mena in terms of metaphysical theory.

PSY(MIK'AI. RkSI'.AKCH

‘21

Detijiled Hiiiilysis of tlir ri^ports of psychical research
cxporini(‘rjls rcwals tJiat IIhtc* is noi even a pruna facie
c*as(‘ for tho existence <)f psi-phenoinena jud^c'd from the
scientific standpoint. The ne(‘d for a th(*orv to explain
them then Ion* iloes not arise . In any e vent parapsyeho-
le)^ical experinu'nts e*e)uld. by tlieir \ ea’v nature. e‘stablish
only e>nc tbinn. riz. that theax* was a causal nexus involve‘d
which proeluce*d tlv* resuKs observeel. It woulel, however,
be* absurd fe)!* any se*ie ntisi te) ae*eount for any such e*ausal
nexus by I lie* e*\pe*elient e)f fallin^i‘ back e)n metaphysical
thee)ries which ele*rive direedly fre)m the primitive* be*liefs
and suj)erstitions of his ance*stors. It is ne) wonder that;
the* ^jreal maje)rity e)f pra(*tical scientists re<yard psychical
reseandj with indilVerent se*e‘ptie*ism.

A re\Trsi()!i te) ex-eullist beliefs woulel seldenn be* ae(*epteel
ame)no:st intelligent peoi)le- of te)-elay inle‘ss these* weTe* sup-
pejrted by a e*ertaiii loj^ne* based on ae*e*e|)t(‘el iel(‘as. The*
Junelaim iital idea whieli uphe)lels the e‘ntire* structure e)f
pre.*sent elay oe*e*ult r(‘se*are*li is that of the Minel. The psye*lu-
e*al nsearche*!* invariably sjie-aks of the minel as a aa

sich a thino- in itself; his basic axie)m is that the* minel is
somct]]iny whie*h pe)sse‘sse‘s a e‘ausal ellicacy e)f its e)wn.
Inelceel he* e*xpatiates u|)e>n tliis the*me‘ still further by attri-
bntiiiji^ te) the* minel a causal eHie*ae*y e)nly restrained from
omni[)ot<*nce by the* shackles e)f the* material body a vie'w
whie’h has a ^reat many similaritie‘s te) the‘oloj^i(*al e*one*(*pts
of the* semi.

'' The minel " is a vi*rv va)[>ue and loose ly elerm(*d e*e)ncept.
In eve*ryday life the* te*rm has its uses. Fe)r example*, vve
know well ene)U{Th what a person is trying te) e*onvt y when
he tells us that his mind is e‘e)nfiise*el. e)r that a e*crtain friend
of his lias a brilliant mind, eir that a neighbour’s mind has
become eleran^e*el. In cacli of tlmse* examples the* worel
“brain” e*an e^asily be substitute*el without miicli, if any,
le)ss e)f me*anin{>f. Wlien phile>so}>hers take* ov’er, he)we\'e*r,
the term “ minel ” is used to ce)ve*r an ene)rme)us variety
of meanings all e)!' the*in metaphysical in e*e)ne*ept anel
pe)ssessing ne) allinity to science eir e‘Ve*n te> e‘veryelay life.

Tlie issue has still been further e'emfused by IYe*udian
and allieel s(*he>ols of psychoanalysis who have attributed
to the* mind semi-mechanical attribute's i\ elevice which

22

The Psychology of the Occult

works well aiiougli within limits but which again has littU^
affinity with the philosoph(*rs’ concepts or with its use in
everyday speech. To cap everything Oieolog'ians and
mystics have added to th(‘ general confusion by their tendency
to e(|iiate the mind with the ancient idea of tJie soul. The
psychical researehcT reaps the advantage of this eofifiision
by using any or all of these views on the natur(‘ of the mind
as it suits hini, adding to tliem or subtracting from them
as he deems fit.

The great fallacy lying behind all such concepts lies in
the tendency to regard tin* mind as a thing in it self, something
which j)ossesses a location in space and time. Modern
psychologists, a))art from a minority of psyehoanalylieal
sch(K»ls. recognise the nai\*ety (d‘ this i(h‘a. Th(‘y recognise
‘'mind” to be a confusing term for the subj(‘etive asj)eet
of the hraiu in action. Mental proe(‘sses, mental activity
aiid similar terms have* largely repla(‘ed the word " mind ”
in modern psychiatry. The mind as a sp(‘eitie (‘iitity does
not exist; it is a convenient fiction. It poss(‘ss(‘s no scien¬
tific meaning and no amount of effort has yet produced a
precise scientific definition. As a basis for sci(*ntifie theory,
as opposed to metaphysical spe(‘ulation, it is (juite useless
unless it is first providc'd wath an artificial set of m(‘ehanical
properties such as Freud gav<‘ to it. Kxen then such de¬
vices can, by their very nature, have only a limited function
and cannot possess an\ wide scientific significance.

The real mystery p(‘rtaining to mental activity is the
fact that th(‘ mechanism of the brain is accompanied by
the phenomenon of consciousness. The human brain is
not solely an intricate piece of machinery. Its multi¬
tudinous actions and reactions are accompanied by a sub¬
jective awareness of pain, fear, pl(*asur(‘, hunger, sense of
effort, drowsiness or excitement, together with a number
of other sc^nsations which we call seeing, hearing, filling,
tasting and smelling and which we (experience when certfTin
stimuli reaching us from outside are “ transmitted ” to
the braiii. In a word, the mechanism of the brain poss(\sses
what no other mechanism possesses the faculty of (con¬
sciousness or subjcT'tive awareness.

The phenomenon of consciousness is an (Miigma which

Psychical Rksp:aucii

23

modern sci(‘iK*(‘ sees little hop(* of ever resolving for how
<*an eonscious thought ever hope to (‘xj)lain itself to itself V
Conseiousn(‘ss is t)ie one great fundarnentid Vh(‘\ oS oot
existence beyorid which we cannot explore; anv ''explaiui-
tion of it would ol necessity have to b(‘ made in t(‘rnis \ et
more iundamental ; and tluTC are none availabh*. Anv
explanation oi eonseionsness in terms f)ther than that of
eonseiousness itself would l)e only a ])art explanation with
at most a limit(‘(l pragmatic value. Then^ are limits to
potential knowledge and. the intrinsic natun* of eonseious¬
ness is one of them.

The majority of psychologists today b(‘Iievi‘ that eon¬
seiousness possesses little or do (‘ausal function of its own,
that it is ni(‘rely a subsidiary aeeompaniment, a passive
f^iphenmueuom of <*erebral activity. This may r)r may not
])rove to l)e eorreel. Then* is increasing evidence tliat a
sp(‘eifie area at the bas(‘ of the brait) is resj)onsibl(* for tluj
j)henonu*non ol eonseiousness, an area which d('vel()j)ed
<‘arly on in the history of animal evolution and wliieli has
not greatly ex})anded sine(‘ man emerged from the lower
forms of mammal life. This primitive part of the brain
possesses little or no bearing on the (piestion of intelligenee;
The degree of inteIligeiK*e attained depends almost entir(*ly
on the relative development of the e(‘rebral cortex ; this
can be regarded as an extremely subtl(‘ and complex (cal¬
culating mechanism which synthesises and analyses Ihe
myriad nervous imjuilses flowing into the brain from all
parts of the body.

( onseiousness appears, at the v(‘ry most, to l)c notliing
more than a biological device, a sensitiser. “ amplifier ”
or supereharg(T, which promot(‘s smoother running or in¬
creased efficiency of tlie (*erebrai mechanism. The |)r(*-
vailing seientifie view is that if eonseiousness is not a nuTC
j)assive ej)iphenoinenon, then it must serve .sY>///r biologicYil
fumdion, It will need far greater and far more reliable
evidence than psychical research has as yet provided,
before the scientist can ever consider replacing this avcH-
grounded belief with the notion that consciousness is an
aspect of the transeendental powers residing in the human
organism. As modern scientific knowledge advances, it

TilK PSYCHOLOCY OF TIIK OcCUl.T

leaves less and l(‘ss scope for speculation on possibilities
(‘oneerning the transcendental powers of “ the mind

On(‘ cannot be surprised at the metaphysical doctrines
of psychical research. Almost every brancli of sciemee
has at oiu‘ tim(‘ or another during the })resent century had
its eminent iiKdapliysieal interpreters. It is only a little over
threc“liundr(‘d years ago that the Knglish j)hysician William
Harvey (exploded the prevailing belief of Iiis day that “ ani¬
mal spirits caused the blood to (*oiirse through a man’s
body.

'J'he theory of vitalism still lingta’s on among some of
th<‘ older biologists, who believe tliat the phenomenon of
life can only be explained in terms of teleology and ‘‘ vital
forces’’. It is only two decades since the physicist Sir James
.leans published (and later retracted) his belief that the
cosmos was the creation of a divim^ mathematician. Vital¬
ism, now discredited, was a remarkabh^ modern development
of the anhtiislic beliefs of ])rimitive man.

Animism is th(‘ b(‘lief that iiiauinjute obj(‘cts lmv(‘ minds
or souls and that natural forces an* due to the activity of
various spirits. It is a relatively short cultural stt*}) from
this ])rimitivc form of animism to tin* metaphysical (and
meta])horical) intricacies of Bergson’s theories concerning
the elan vital, in which the doctrine* of vitalism reached
its full(*st expression.

To sum up : Psychical res(*arch represents a rev ersion
towards occult beliefs which have had their origin in the
earliest human cultures. Its claims to scientific status
are ('onfulcd by the metaphysical, as opposed to the scientific,
nature of its concepts and theories. These metaphysical
concepts and th(*ories arc unmistakably derived from the
supernatural beliefs and superstitions wdiich have existed
in various forms down through the ages to the present day.
l^\'('n if the accuracy of parapsychological experiments were
to be fully sut)stantiated, the metaphysical theories and
conc<‘pts upon which such experiments w(‘re based would
not l>c scientifically established ; such exf)eriments, if verified,
could only prove that a causal nexus existed wJiose nature
could not for the present be elucidated. Parapsychological
theories of transcendental mental faculties would still remain

Psychical Rksf.arch

25

speculatkt' rmtys in nidaphysi(‘.s\ possessing no relation to
scierilifie theory. As such they possess no siguiiicauce
for the scientist, ivho rccojfiiiscs that the sole justilication
of any sci(“ntifi(: tlu'ory lies in its usefulness as a basis for
empirical deduction.

What cannot be avoided in psychical research "is the
charf^e of a cninmon wcakiu'ss in logical argument, a pre¬
judiced interpretation, a hosj)itality to extreme, unscientific
by[)otheses. an ovi'rlooking or too complacent dismissal
oi' the sources of error, whicli give risi* to the Psychical
Itesearcli countcipart of what was and remains the ancient
error of occultism.’'‘

‘ Jaslrow. .1., The .iiiimm oj Psiichiail Hesairrh. Tli ■ Case for and
aijainst Fsyehieal Hclief, p. *2!)1, edited by ('. Mmehison. Clark
University Press. Mass., 1027.

ChapU*r Tuo

THE SUBCONSCIOL S MINI)

Ix (;kxkkai., wlun w<.‘ think or aj)])ly ourselves to some
task, \v(‘ iire more or less aware ot wliat we are thinking
or (loiii^r. Moreover, not only ar(‘ we eonseioiis of the
<)})jeets of our immediate ath^ntion. Imt we may also h(‘
eonseions ot‘ ourselves attending to tlxe task in hand ; we
possess, that is, what no other s})eeies of the aninial kiii^^-
dom ])ossesses, s(‘ll*-awar(‘n<\ss. Nevertheless. l]i(‘ bulk
of our aetie>ns and ine‘ntal proe‘e*sses are e‘arrie‘el out auto-
inatieally and without e‘onseio\is effort. As eve*rye>n(' is
aware, there is no nee^d to eease c'onveTsin^ the moment one*
starts to walk, run, or drive a e‘ar. One 's hanels, limbs and
feet still eontimie* to funetion with hi^^h cdtie*ie*ncy even thouffh
one's eonseions attention is bein^^ eoneentrateel on the
eoi versation. As many ear-elrivcTS know, it is possible to
drive for miles eteep in tJum^ht without much awareness e)f
the passing seenerv or the act of elri\in^ -the action of
ste*eTin^ anel <Tear-e*hanjying f)e*ing loe)ke*el after by that part
of the* mine! with which eonscnemsne'ss is ne> le>n][re‘r fully
assoeiate*(l, i.e. suheoNscums/1/,

The* minel is so e*onstru(’te‘d that a part of it is able to deal
siibe*onseiously with those routine jobs reepiirinjr little or nn
originality; the* most highly elevelope*el part -the part
normally assoeiat<*d with eonseiousne‘SS— viu\ thus be left to
work without hindre*ne*e on tasks whie*h require a highe*r
degre e* of af)plie*el inte‘llige*ne*e, or in e*oping with novel situa-
tif)ns or ielc*as.

It is nf)t e)ften realised that nearly all mental activity is
of the sube*onseious variedy. From one point of vic'w*, of

The SuHCoNsnors Mind

27

1‘oiirso, mental activity is synonymous with brain activity,
the mind itself bcin^y merely the subjective* or personal ”
aspect of th(‘ brain in action. The brain is an incredibly
intricate mec'hanisrn which rules over every j)hase of our
thinking and actions. The* subjective or consciom aspect of
its activities, which we cxp(‘ricncc as imagination, ideas,
thoughts, emotions, desires, memories, feeling and willing,
is called mental ” for lack of a better term, for we* n inaiii
in total ignorance* as te) he»w or why brain activity is ae‘(‘e)in-
panieel by the subje*e*live phene)m(‘ne)n of e*onse*ie>usne*ss.

Only a small }>art of our e'crebral a(*livity is ac(‘ompanied
by consciousne^ss. Such {>re)e*(*ss<*s as the re*gulatie)n of emr
breathing, heart-be*ats. digestiem, the e*()-e)relination of our
movements, the mainte*nane*e e)f e)ur balane*e anel the sme)oth
running of all the natural functions of e)ur be>ely, depcaul
on uiu'onseious activities e)f the brain. Sue*h brain activities
are not te*rnu*el mental ” be*e*ause tlu'v are te)tally auto¬
matic and do not ele})enel to any ele‘gre‘e‘ upon e*e)nseie)us
processes. Ne^vertheless we tinel tliat there* are maiiv brain
proce^sses which, althe)Ugh large*ly automatic, e*e)ulei never
have been acquirexl in the* first instance* withe)ut the* aid ed*
conseiemsness. For example, when e)ne ti(\s a shoe* lace
automati(‘ally with the attention fe)e*usse*d e)n something else,
we say, for e*e)nveniene*e e)f expression, that the* subee)nseious
mind, ned. the* unconseieuis brain, is elire*e*ting the me>ve*ments
of the hanels.

Sube'onseiems mental fune*tie>ns may be regareleel as half¬
way betwee'n the fully e*e)nse*ie)us aspe'cts e)f brain ae*tivity
and the)se e»f its aertivitie's whiedi re niaiii for ever unaeeoni-
panie'd by any spark of conscious illuininatieuK As wt gre)w
olelcr the* range* and e*omplcxity of our suhce)nse*ious mental
functions increase's e*normously ; they femn the* great bulk of
our memtal life anel ce)le)ur all our themghts anel ae*tie)ns,
leaving only a relatively mine>r. but highly s]a*cialiseHl, ])art
of e)ur minels asso(*iatcel with e*onsciousne\ss. These sub¬
conscious mental activities have given rise te> the cone*eption
of the subconscious mind. This must ne)t be confuse‘el, as it
often is, with the thcoretie^al cone*e'pt e)f the Unconscious.
originate*d by Freuel, the use of which is mainly limit(*d te)
the psychoanalytical sediools e)f psychopathole)gy.

28

The PsY(’ii()L(HiY oE tin: OtxiH/r

The conscious aspect of uicutal activity is coiiccrixcd only
with what Vhc individual is conscioxAs of vd any partievdar
moiiKiit a sensation of paiiu a memory, an external object
of int(‘rcst, a feeling' of sorrow, or perhaps a combination of
any or even all of these things. Tht* value of conscious
thouj^ht, which is only an accessory (though extremely
important) mental fun(*lion, is to adjust th(‘ individual more
efficiently to his imm(^diat(‘ environment in relation to his
past ex{)eri(‘n(‘e.

It is much to be ri'^retted that tlu‘ idea of the mind as a
thinfi ( ver ent<‘rcd into psychology. For what we art‘ r(‘ally
(*onc(‘rn(‘d about is mental activity an activ(‘ firocess, nothing
static. Oiio max' talk about the brain as an obj(‘ct, for it is
then* to be svvw ; !)ut to say that the mind is merely the
subjcvtivc' (*ounterpart of tin* brain is unwise, for the moment
the brain ceasc^s to lx* aedivc. the mind can no longer be .said
tfj possess any (xishaicc*. Nevertheless, in spite of the
Iopi(‘al dillieully involv’cd, the eoiuapt of the mind is so
familiar to (‘veryone that it is ditlicult to disj)()se of it
alto^ctlier.

Most ])syeholo^isls and psychiatrisis today d(aiy the
( xistenec of tin* mind, and tJiey are undoubfedly (correct in
omittinx; from their work and WTiiinjrs a hij^hly ambiguous
term. However, it is not propos(*d here to omit sucli a
familiar tirnu and in fact there is litth* ]K‘(‘d to do so provided
that it is nmembered that tlu* term “ mind symbolises
only the subjective aspect of the brain in action.

The “ subconscious mind ” may lx* r(‘garded merely as a
collective term for all m(*ntal activity which lic‘s below the
level of eoj]S(*iousncss Or, to put it anotluT way. the
subconscious mind d(*not.es all that continuous mental
activity which is either perman(‘ntlv or semi-p(Tmanently
dissociated from tin* “ main stream of consciousness
Such terms as “ mind ’’ aT)d its derivative* the subconscious
mind an* n(it really scientinc terms. The former derives
originally from classical and ncojilatonist metaphysical
speculation, and thes(* terms are therefon* not amenable to
an exact scientific definition. Tlu* above definitions, how¬
ever, will be found (juite adecpiate for the purpose of helping
the general r(*ader to attain a sufficient insight into those

Thk Stthconscious Mind

29

aspects of abnormal psjchology with which tJic present
work is largely concerned.

The bulk of our mental activity is of the subconscious
variety. This may be said to be true of all the animal world
in which llic term “ mind ” is at all applicable. For example
the present day monkey, unlike our own simian ancestors,
is able to leaf) considerable distances from tree to tree ; one
species, the gibbon, is reported to be able to leap as much as
forty feet. Each hap rc(fuires a gcnuiiu' subconscious
estimation of distance, strength of branches, w^ind strength
and direction, and the inuseidar e ffort reejuired to cover the
necessary distance.

All human actions reejuire the aid of subconscious mental
activity. The tennis playcT, for instance, wdio sends the ball
swiftly over the net, does not consciously estimate the angle
at which his raccfuct meets the ball or the positioning of his
feet preparatory to making his stroke. These, and hundreds
of other intricate calculations, are made sub(*ons(‘iously.

The mind—wdiich has been pithily d(‘serib(Hl as brain
plus consciousness ” may be regarchd as an instrum(‘nt
designed for the most effective action under a maximum
number of possible conditions. Th(* great value of conscious¬
ness is that it helps to achieve maximum (’on(»entration upon
what is in\n\ediately necessary. That highly specialised
form of mental activity which is assoeiatcnl with (‘onsenous-
ness, i.e. conscious thought, has behind il the less specialised
but relatively vast mechanism of subconscious mentation.
As a further illustration of this partnership, we may observe
that if one had to (‘on(*entrate consciously u|)on forming tlu*
letters of the w^ords one is writing, creative thinking would
he im})ossihle. The subconseioiis mental process look after
the task of forming the letters and words, leaving the cons¬
cious atti'idion to that far more subtle business of suptTvising
original idea-association which w^e call creative* thinking.

As may be seen, all consciously directed mental or ]}hysi(*al
activity is ])acked by a continuous wclte^r of subconscious
mental activities of which the personal self is seldom aware,
since conscious attention is usually directed towards objects,
events or tasks outside of the self.

Tin: Psychology of thk Occult

80

This subconsciously operating j)art of the mind never
ceases to function from the day one is born until death. The
mind is continually registering sense imjircssions even when
w(‘ are not consc'ious of it. For instance, it is only when the
clock on the mantclpi(‘(*(‘ stops ticking that w'c take notice of
it and realise that all th(‘ time we have l>ccn subconsciously
ngistering its ticking.

In sleep the activities of tlu^ subeons(*ious mind laek that
purposiveness which (‘onseious attention brings to it, as may
be seen from our dreams. In the normal healthy individual
the subconscious mind only becomes fully coherently active
when it is called upon to sujiport thciconseious actions and
thinking necessary to the carrying on of the daily round ;
the individual ge ars it to his wdll, as it were, and it supjxirts
him ably, carrying out the thousand and oiu‘ automatic*
aertivities which do not recjuire eonseious attention for their
function, thus enabling him to concentrate on any particular
matter which nerds his undivided attention.

In eases of hysleria this co-ordination betwern the sub-
(?onscious and eonseious mental activities of the mind often
breaks down and (as will be seen later) this laek of co-ordina¬
tion may produc'c some' vcTy odd results.

Des[)ite‘ the' fact that the subconscious menial activity
usually fulfills ils highest functions whc!i geared to the needs
of the e?onseious attention, it may oeeasionally show, unde^r
special circijinstanccs, that it possesses indepeniknt powers,
not only of imagination and fantasy such as we see in our
dreams, but also of reasoning and intelligence equal—and
in some case's ('ven supc'rior to that provide'd by fully enm-
seious mental activity.

The' fact that subeonseious mental activity may in some
individuals possc'ss powers of reasoning ee^ual to those of
eonsc'ious thought might appear unlikely to those unacenis-
tomeel to the idc'u. In dreams such powers of reasoning are*
usually absent, but there are many easels on record in which
the dreamer has derivexl e*onsiderabIe benefit from this aspect
of his subconscious mental aetivitie^s. Robert Louis Steven¬
son, for example, state'd that his dreams i>resented him with
some of the best plots for his stories.

Thk SuHcoNscious Mind

5il

Another famous example is that of Coleridfje’s imag^inative
|M)(*m Kubla Khan, which was remembered from an opium
dream. This poem is an undoubted example of prolonged
subeonseious incubation. Malhematieians. too, have fn*-
quently observed that they have awakened w ith the solution
to a difficult mathematical problem, the solution of which
had defied their best efforts during their waking liours. A
most striking and unusual instance of this was the experience
of Professor W. A. Lamberton of Pennsylvania lJniv(;rsity.
Profc.ssor Ijamberton had for days been trying to solve a
mathematical pn)blem by algebraical methods without
success. One morning as he opened his eyes he saw, outlined
against the opposite wall, an hallueinatory outline of a
diagrammatic figure which gav<“ a geometrical solution to the
[iroblem ! During sleep his subeonseious mind had worked
out the solution to the problem in its own way and had
.succeeded in bringing it to his conscious attention by means
of a hypnagogic hallucination.

Chapter Three

MENTAL DISSOCIATION

X hk tiikory of ‘‘ mental dissociation or more simply,
“ dissociation ”, though largely obsolescent in modern
psychological literatur(% remains a convenient working
hypothesis in many respects, and still plays a major part iji
some schools of psychopathology at the present day. It
also offers the layman, for whom the present work is largely
intended, an easily understood common denominator for a
variegated range of mental phenomena which include ordin¬
ary dreams, automatic-writing, mcdiumistic* trance, and a
variety of hysterical and hypnotic phenomena. Dissocia¬
tion may be said to cover the bulk of that fascinating and
extensive group of psychological anomalies whose mani¬
festations have, throughout the ages, been universally
attributed to divine or infernal origin or to the supernatural
powers of gifted individuals.

Today most medical psychologists prc^lV'r, for purely
practical reasons, to intiTprct hysterical syndromes in terms
other than those of dissociation. Dissociation as a practical
theory has serious limitations; nevertheless, if used in a
descriptive sense only, its retention proves both prac^tieabh*
and useful, and it is mainly in this descriptive sense that the
term “ dissociation ” will be used from here on.

Dissociation denob's the existence of subsidiary mental
activity, activity whicdi is operating more or less in indepen¬
dence of, or dissociated fronij the main mental system which
constitutes the normal (conscious personality.

Kxamplcs of dissociation are not difficult to find in every¬
day lif(k For example one has often had the experience of

32

Mentat. Dissociation

;33

reading a hook aiuh in the iiudcUc of a i)agc% starting to think
about something (‘Isc. While the eonseious mind pursues
its reveries, the eyes may eontiniu- to r(‘ad th(* words line by
line, (‘ven to the extent of several pag(‘S, before the individual
r(‘alises that h(' has perused part of a page or chapter without
being able to recall in the least what he lias sub(*onseiously
been Heading. While his eonseious mind has been engaged
in going down the aisles of thought, faiiev free, jiart of his
mind, below^ the Iev(‘l of eonseioiisness as it w^Te, has been
dilig(*ntly Heading the printed page\s ; the act of reading and
the memory of what was read remain dissociaird from the
conscious mental activity of the reader, and as far as lu' was
consciously aware he might just as w’cll have not read that
section of the book at all although (as will be seen in anotlier
chapter) such disso(?iated memories may on occasion be
recalled into consciousness in special circumstances, su(*h as
those afforded by deep hypnosis.

A similar example of mental dissociation, already cpioted,
is observable in the ease of the professional piano jilayt r who
is able to read and play a complicated piece of music wdiile
conversing iidelligently at the same time. W'hil(‘ his eons^
cious mind is occupied with the conversation, another part
of his mind is deciphering the notes and keeping his fingers
moving across the keyboard.

In the above two examples, “ dissociation ” is seen to be a
useful descriptive term, and this meaning of dissociation is
the one mostly used by psychiatrists today. This must not
be confused, however, with the full-fledged theory of mcutal
dissociation evolved by the great French psyehopalhologist,
Pierre Janet, to explain the various phenomena of j)atho-
logical hysteria. Janet described hysteria as a dissociation
of the personality, a theory which has been almost (entirely
superseded today. It was propounded on the assumption
that the normal unity of the mind may, under certain
circumstances and in (rertain individuals, become disorganised
into two or more mental systems. The mind, according to
this point of view, far from being a unity, is a battle-ground
of conflicting instiiuds, habits, impulses, ideas rational and
irrational—sentiments and emotional reactions. Normally
there is a sort of balance worked out in obedience to the do-

34

ThK PSYf T101.0GY OF TIIK OccULT

niancls of our environment, and this equilibrium between
eonflieting forces has given rise to the idea of the unity of
the mind. Then* is a unity there, but in the sense that a
global war possesses unity. More truly there is continuity ;
and it is this continuity, together with our continuous
menior)' of it, which gives rise to the sense of unity
of consciousness.

From this standpoint the normal personality may be said
to consist of an integration of various mental factors into
a more or less homogeneous system. Under certain con¬
ditions of stress, however, these various aspects of the
mind become integrated, not into one, but into two or more
mental systems. A great deal of evidence was brought
forward to support this view. A good example* of such
evidence is to be seen in the phenomenon of alternating
personality, eH<‘h personality often possessing eharaeteristics
highly antitheti(‘nl to the other.

It is best, however, to forget Janet’s dissociation tliwry
of hysteria, while still bearing in mind that the term which
he coined is now generally used simply as a des(Tiptive
label eov(*ring certain aspects of both the normal and the
hysterical mind ; it indicates a subsidiary stream of mental
activity which is no longer fully integrated with the needs
and activities of the conscious personality, but whicti takes
on a certain independent activity of its own.

A different example of dissociation is provided bj' dreams.
In sleep all conscious attention to the surrounding world is
in abeyance ; consciousness and all the higher brain centres
which are, in the waking state, responsible for judgment,
discrimination, estimation of value and so on, are out of
action. But the lower centres of the brain arc still active
in a rambling haphazard fashion, and between sleeping and
w^aking—that is, with the gradual return of consciousness—
we catch a glimpse of this somewhat chaotic activity which,
on full awakening, is recollected as a dream. These rambling
and often nonsensical dreams often appear of the most
intense significance and coherence at the time: this is
because the higher mental faculties responsible for judgment
and logical appreciation are still asleep, while the more
primitive and undiscerning faculties responsible for feelings
of significance and emotion are still active.

Mentai. Dissociation

35

The activity of the piano player whose conscious attcJition
is directed upon his conversation has provided us with a
^ood example oi* normal dissociation. In his case, the
dissociated mental activity which directs his fingers on the
keyboard is j^roduced as the result of long practice until it
has become an automatic process. However, in such
phenomena as automatic writing, the dissociated mental
activity b('(*omes not automatic, as th(‘ name implies, but to
a large degree spontaneously cre^atixe*. Many cases are on
record in which th(‘ subject reads a book or consciously
performs some other mental task while his hand continues
to writ(‘ an imaginative story- -generally childish in character
—without the individual coru^erned b(ung aware of what is
being written until he reads it. Automatic writers who
become tainted by the cult of spiritualism almost invariably
[iroducc scripts piir[)orting to writtcai at the instigation
of discarnate spirits.

The normal pcTson maintains what ])iay be called a stan¬
dard equilibrium ; all the various intellectual and emotional
factors arc co-ordinat(*d to a mor(‘ or less standardised pattern,,
the intricate welter of subc‘onscious nu^nlal activity being
co-ordinated to the ue(*ds of the eonseious personality, the
whole forming a relatively homogeneous mental systxTu.

In many types of hysteria we are presented with the pheno¬
menon of subconscious mental activity which refuses to be
integrated with the main mental system and which often
retains a high degree of autonomy and complexity amount¬
ing, in some instances, to complete secondary personalities.
In automatic writing, often a sign of latent hysteria, evidence
of secondary personalities is often manifest. In its extreme
form the phenomenon of double or multiple personality is
exhibited. “ Possession ” by a devil in biblical times, or
by Satan in medieval times—a sure sign of witchcTaft and
punishable by burning alive - were often cases of multiple
personality taking their form from the beliefs of the da\'.

An advanced stage' of mental dissociation is reached in the
phenomenon of sleep walking or somnambulism, also a sign
of hysteria. The sleeper in such instances gets out of bed,
frequently talks, and may perform quite complicated actions
requiring intelligence comparable to that of his waking state

30

TifE Psychology of tjie Occui/r

-all witliout his having the least idea of his activities when
he wakes in the morning. During his nocturnal wanderings
it is as if another personality had emerged, totally dissociated
from his normal everyday personality in every way ; his
experie nces in the somnambulic state form no part of his
stream of memory ; the memory of his slee])-walking activi¬
ties is there, but it normally remains buried be^vond conscious
recall. Hysterical somnambulism may reach serious pro¬
portions in extremic cas(\s, coming on even while the patient
is awake at the time.

Such limited forms of somnambulism shade olT into a
differcJit category of dissociation in which the normal
conscious personality is supprcssc'd for long jx'riods of time.
Such mental states are known as fugues anct may involve a
ciomplete forgetfulness of the patient’s idcMitity and his j)asf.
Such cases of “ loss of numiory ” are fairly frccjuently reported
in the newsjiapers. The })aticnt is unable to re call his own
name*, his addr(‘ss or o(!cupation. Otherwise^ his intellect
often remains unimpaired, or, in a few instances, becomes
considerably superior to that of his normal self

In this (‘ategory of mental dissociation ma\' also be classed
such anomalies as alternating or multiple j)t*rsonality ; the
patient experience's altcTiiating changes of ])ersonality, each
often with its own watertight set of memories ; sometimes
two, three or even more clifferent personalities appear to
emcrg(\ often highly antagcniistic to the other, even to the
extent of enjoying rcc^iprocal verbal recrimination !

Allic'd to these arc the trance state's of the' spiritualistic
medium. Here the normal consciousness is more or less
in abeyance, and the dissociated mental elements take over
control ; the only difference from automatic writing is that
the medium speaks instead of writing. All these forms of
dissociation ha,vc a hysterical origin, and U}) till com[)arativcly
recent times w(‘rc cxplain(*d either as “ possession ” by evil
spirits or the devil himself, or alternatively by divine “ in¬
spiration whichev<'r appeared the most likely inter¬
pretation.

Mental dissociation, however, can be induei'd artificially
to extreme degrees, by the use of hypnotism or hypnosis.
Hypnosis has been described as an artificial form of hysteria.

Mkntai, Dissociation

37

Up to a poinl this description is valid, for the hypnotic
subject—like the liystcTical patient may undergo jiiarkcd
mental dissociation with an accompanying increase! in
suggestibility. Furthermore, most of the phenonu'na ob¬
servable in hysttTia have been induced under hypnosis at
one time or another with specially sensitive subjects. Ac¬
cording to th(‘ most reliable authorities, a de(!p state! of
hypnosis can only be induced in the case of those sijbje(*ts
who are naturally inclined to hysteria, although most j>eople
are hypnotisabU^ to some extent. Certainly it is true to say
that hysterical f)atients are by far the most easily hypnotised
of any.

A subject who has been deeply hypnotised often reaches
a state of suggestibility far beyond that attainable in any
ordinary case ol‘ hysteria. In the ease of hysterical subjects
hypnotism may he regarded merely as a means of increasing
the subject’s already considerable tendency to mental
disso(*iation. Suggestibility, which is the usual accompani¬
ment of hystcTia, also becomes greatly accentuated, some¬
times to such an extent that the subject obeys every
suggestion of the hypnotist like an automaton. In deep
states of hyj>n(>sis, delusions can be induced on tlie largest
scale at th(! operator’s suggestion.

The occurrence of spontaneous visual hallucinations
sometimes occurs in cases of severe hysteria, and at^eounts for
many of the “visions ” of saints and others -St. Paul and
Joan of Arc changed the course of history through their
experiences of visual and auditory hallucinations.

Genuine sensory hallucinations of all types may be said
to involve dissociation -in the sense in which wc have
hitherto (*niployed the term. While the main personality,
with its (‘ontinuity of consciousness and memory, remains
more or less intact, autonomous mental activity below the
level of conseiousness is at work producing the fantasies
which astonish, delight, worr>% or terrify the conscious mind
of the individual who sees or hears thorn. In abnormal
psychology, or (as it is now generally called) psychopathology,
the term “ dissociation ” crovers a multitude of psychological
anomalies which at first glance do not warrant this name.

In the case of dreaming, hallucinations, automatic actions.

3S

Tni: PsYCHoj.oGY of the Occult

or any other clear (Jiit ease where mental activity is evidently
acting in independence of the conscious will or attention of
the individual, dissociation of one kind or another is apparent.
When it is used to des(Tibe situations in which memories,
emotions, certain thoughts, or even physical sensations as
in the case of hysterical (functional) anaesthesia are unablt^
to enter the individual’s field of consciousness, the existence
of dissociated mental activity is not immediately obvious
and is only to be inferred on theoretical grounds.

In hysterical analgesia or insensitivencss to pain, anc*
hysterical anaesthesia where the patient loses all sense ot
feeling in the affected area, we have two very curious pheno¬
mena of dissociation. Without any observable physiological
changes at all, a finger, a hand, an entire limb, becomes
insensitive to pain or loses the sense of feeling altogether.
The affected part may be burnt, or pricked with pins, but
the painfully stimulated nerves do not succeed in trans¬
mitting their message into consciousness. There seems
strong evidence that, in the case of functional anaesthesia,
a part of the patient’s mind is subconsciously aware when
the affected area is being touched or not touched. Similarly
in functional blindness and deafness, although the sights
and sounds may not appear to enter th(‘ conscious mind of
the patient, a simple tri(;k will effectively demonstrate that
the patient is actively repressing them and preventing them
reaching the full light of consciousness.

In the ease of functional analgesia—in the middle ag(‘s
the mark of the devil and an infallible indication of witch¬
craft the problem is less easily explained. Pain is no light
thing to repress and it is often difficult to believe that the
patient is “ subconsciously ” aware of th(^ pain. Pain is
not pain unless it enters consciousness. However, ()n(^e we
embark on the problem of (consciousness, wc find ourselve s
up to the neck in a mire of unproductive speculation. It
may be noted in passing that a great deal of the confusion
in psychology is due to the fact that the term “ mental ’’
remains largely iindefinc^d and hence open to a variety of
interpretations.

In pathological dissociation we are presented with the
existence of more or less autonomous mental activity acting
independently of the main system of mental activity which

Mkntal Dissociation

constitAites the* normal personality of ilu* individual. The
degree of autonomy varies. Sometimes it is fairly complete
as in fugues, eases of multiple personality a'nd liysterical
somnambulism; at other times it is only just appreciable,
as in states of light trance. More important than the degree
of autonomy, however, is the complexity of the nuMital pro¬
cess involved.

In hysterical cliorea, or St. Vitus’ dance, for exainjile,
the autonomous mental activity is comparatively simple.
In hysterical hallucinations or in cases of automatic! writing,
on the other hand, the degree of compk^xity is far greater.
In much automatic writing, too, the autonomous mental
processes are cxtrenK!ly complex. Highly developed aiito-
mati(‘ writers have sometimes been able to engage in intelli¬
gent conversation while their hand writes good prose* on a
genuine crc'ative level, without the conscious mind of the
talker knowing anything of what is being written ; the
dissociated part of the mind show^s full evidence of a complete
subsidiary personality. In fact automatic writing, as in
some weli known cases of fugues, may even manifest complete
consistent personalities ccpial in all respects, and sometimes
superior, to the normal personality of the individual.

The basis of all dissociative syndrom(‘S of a hysterical
origin is traceable to repression in one form or another.
Simple repressed impulses are common enough in everyday
life, and we all possess numbers of unpleasant or undesirable
memories which we keep r(‘presscd and successfully forget.
These are simple types of repression. Where complexes are
present, the repressed material is considerably more compli¬
cated ; for it consists of associations of emotionally (*oloured
ideas and memories linked with some instinctive urge whose
expression is undesired by the conscious personality. If
complexes remain repressed the individual may r(*main
hysterical, unbalanced and ill-adjusted to life.

Occasionally it happens that large groups of repressed
ideas and emotions become so coherent and well-integrated
that they come to constitute what is pote?itially the basis of
a complete new personality. Sometimes these super com¬
plexes force their way intx) actual expression, ousting the
normal personality altogether from its place in the stream

40

Till’. Psyc’H()L(k;y or tiik Ocx’ULT

of (‘oiiseionsness and taking ooin})lctr possession ol‘ the
eonseious lield lor lon^ periods of time ; in such instances
there may result eases of alternaliTig personality vvilk
aeeomj)an\ in^’ amnesia, and fugues in which the two personal¬
ities may (‘aeh possess thc‘ir own stream of memory and re¬
main oblivious to the mental life of the other, though both
belong to th(‘ saim* individual. Such s(‘eoiidarv personalities
and other less e()mj)lex mental systc^ms are d<Tived from
fragments of the normal systems of thought, emotional
t('nd(‘neies, reaetiojis and desires, whieh have been ref)r(‘ssed
owing to their ineompatibility with the aims, beliefs, ideals
and even illusions of the main personality; they have for
long periods Ix en sueeessfully repressed and hence dissociated.

( as(‘s of alt(Tnating personality and fugues are relatively
eommon in th(‘ history of psychopathology. Cases of
genniiH' multiph* personality, however. ar(‘ rare. Up to
the present, less than fifty eases of undoubted multiple
personality liav(‘ been reported in medical and psychological
literature. ' The })atieut may exhibit three' or more different
personalities, anel one' patie*nt was even reported to have
e‘xhibite‘d as many as se'ven ! In almost every one of these^
e*ase s, how ew er, the' effe'ets of the psyehe)pathe)le)gist’s ow n
tre'atrnent e)r experiments liave been mainly re"sponsil>lc for
the einergenee* of snbsieliarv personalities other than the
first one* which was manifested. The hyste^rie is normally
higlily suggestible* aud in a great many insiaru't's hyj)notism
was re'sorted tei eluring the investigation. We may safe^ly
eonelude that such e*ase's e)f multiple perse)nality are' generally
elue' to suggestion, i.e. are artificially created h>'j)notic
])ersonalitics. Today erases of multiple persemality are
virtually unkne)wui, at least uneler nuKiern eivilise‘d e^onditions.

Wherever there are mental processes im})erfectly co¬
ordinated with others, mental conflicts, repressed impulses^
moods, incongruities and ineonsisteneies of any kin<l, there
is dissociation. We ru‘(‘d not, then, be surprised to find
vast amounts of it in everyone. There is no profound
distinction between normal and abnormal dissociation, as,
for example, between “ doodling ” absent-mindedly witli
pc^neil and paper, and automatic' writing. Hysterical

‘ Sadler, The Mmd at Mischief.

M KNTAl. I)lS>SC)(’lATTON

41

tlissociatioii uuiy Ix' coiisidtTfd as an abj)(>nnul development
of the normal mechanism of dissociation without which
our minds wo\ild for vwv be in a state of cdironie indecision,
in(‘apabl(’ of hnlialinf; any de(*isive action.

I)iss()(‘iativ(‘ ])henomena may be eonvenientiy classified
into two types ; o?\e type includes hallucinations, automatic
writing, and sucli automatic movements as water-divining
and the use of the j)laiu*hette with these the normal personal
consciousness is r(‘tained. With the other type of pheno-
iiKMia. it is eitlier clouded, as in the lighter stages of trance
and ill sonu* hv()notie states, or else is totally in abeyance,
as in fugues, dee]) liypnosis, dreams and somnambulism.

Tt may well be asked whetlier sueh phenomena as hallu¬
cinations or delirium, when the primary cause is traceable
to organic disease, drugs, ccn^bral injury or insanity, are
justifiably dcscribablc as manifestations of mental dissocia¬
tion. Th(‘ answer to this questio)! is that the term niental
dissociation is a relative on(‘ whose validity th^pends on
the apj>roaeh to the subject. If the approaeh is in terms
of the disfunction of the mind, then there is no reason why
UK'iital dissociation should not be used to cover hallucinations
and delirium, whetlur the cause is jxsyehologieal or organic.
Hovve^'(‘I^ if the (‘m})liasis is on a (‘crebral, pliysiologieal,
bio-eliemieal or eleetro-eneephalographieal a])j)roaeh, then
of course it would b(‘ totally nnwarrantabh* to talk about
‘‘ mental dissociation ’’ in any of those contexts.

'Hie patient, w hether an hysteric or siilT(Ting from cerebral
injury, who exj)erienees a visual hallueination, has his
eonseious attention directed upon the visual scenes which
appai ‘ully appear before his eves. Whether we speak in
terms of the brain or of the mind, it is quite evident that the
halhicinaiions are brought about by a cerebral or mental
activity working with a certain degree of independence of
(i.e. dissociated from) thc‘ relatively homogeneous and co¬
ordinated activity w'hich characterises and underlies the
normal waking personality of the patient. It must be ob¬
served, however, that the label dissociation ” can only be
practically apj)lied when an individual noticeably experiences
tlie effects of sueh autonomous or semi-autonomous activity.

Chapter Four

SUGGESTION

jAlNOTHEH (illKAT FACTOR ill tlu' pcrpctliatioil of 0<*(MlIt
and mystical beliefs and praeti(*es is tliat of siuggestivn ; this
has its most draniatie expn^ssion in hypnotism, and in very
primitive (‘omimmiti(\s can so take hold of the mind of the
individual that death has been known to oeeur solely
through its a^jeney.

Suggeatioa is a technical t(Tm which will be found to occur
frequently throughout the pr(‘sent work. 'Hu' word itself
conveys a fair idea of its meaning but it must be recognised
that “ suggestion is a very vague term and that a precise
definition is not in fa(‘t forthcoming. The origin of the word
in eonneetion with psychology aros(‘ from its use by the
Nancy school of psychothera])ists to describe the docility
and readiness to obey which was observed in hypnotised
and hysterical subjects. Alongside of the readiness to obey
there was observed a gre at readiness to believe in and accept
ideas and information which th(‘ hypnotist or psycdiopatho-
logist conveyed to the subject. Subjeets with this tendency
were classifi(‘d as suggestible,

Sugg<*stibility is seen at its most extrenu' in subjects who
have been deeply hyjinotised ; particularly if the subject is
suffering from liystcria in the first instance. On the otluT
hand suggestil)ility is not confined to hysterical patients:
it plays an enormous part in the normal life of every individ¬
ual. Janet lias defined normal suggestion as “ the induction
of an impuls(‘ in place of n^flective realisation ”, ‘ This
definition is (‘xeellent so far as it goes, but it does not cover

' J‘xt)rhologiriil Healing, |>. S-Wi.

42

Sr(;t;i:S'ni>N

the* effects ()1 extrenu' sij^g(‘stibility sucli ns may be seen in
many types of hysteria.

Although some of the extreiin* (‘ff(‘ets of suggestion still
remain to be explained, we may agr(*e with Janet that in
regard to many of th(‘ lesscT efle(‘ts suggestion is simply the
ineuleation of icieas and beliefs in a jxTson’s mind without
r(‘fer(‘ne(‘ to Itis svusc of logic ; aj)p(‘als to reason, however,
may naturally su})j)Iement the efVe^ets of irrational sugg(‘stion.

Th(' mor(‘ (extreme tyj)es of suggestion (le])end for their
<Jl'e(?t upon tlie degne* of pcTsonal conviction wliieJi th<‘
subject holds in regard to th(‘ idea suggested. In otlier
words the rffccis of sugg<*stion an* easily W(*akened if tin*
individual retains doubts as to the* validity or eorrectn(‘ss
of the ideas presented to him, and it is part of the craft of
the good suggestor to be abh* to lull tin* critical faculty of
his subjects.

llneipiivoeal <*onvietion is the essence of pow(*rfuI sugges¬
tion. In fact the art of suggesiioi\ and it is perhaps best
considered as an art lies in preparing lh(‘ subject's mind
so that id(‘as, slat(‘jnents, proposals and (‘ommands (*an Ik*
straightway aee(‘pt(*d witlioul r(*.serve. Suggestion is a
direct appeal to the irrational in human nature ; the suee<‘ss-
ful ageid must induce the aeeefdanee of ideas which lack an
adecjuate logi(*al basis for thrir aeeeptaj^ee. Suggestion is
therefore seeji at its most effeetive with iiulividuals who an*
unusually credulous, gullil)le, or easily inllueneed b\ others.
It is evident from this that the elleetiveness of suggestion
depends mainly on the degree to which the subject's mind
is depriv(*d of its faculty for (*rilieism /wt// rational and
irrational. This is ii] fact the cardinal factor for its operation.

Th(*n* are innunu*rabl(* ways in which the mind may be
disarmed of its critical faculties; fatigue*, strong emotion,
faulty reasoning, wishful-thinking, drugs, hypnosis, hysteria,
enthusiasm, ignorance, prejudice- all these are capabh* of
increasing the* (‘fleet of suggestion. The working up of
emotion is often a deliberate preliminary step in rendering
the mind sus(*ej)lible to sugg(*stion, (\sp(*cially \vith crowds.
A good (xample was seen in the Nazi rallies before the last
war. Sugg(*stion and emotion can of course lx* inculeatvd
simultaneously, (*ach r(*cif)rocally incivasing tlu* (‘fleet of the*

44

Thk Psy( iiolocv of the Occult

other. In Hiany kinds of ‘‘faith-hcaliny ” the artifieia!
stimulation of the emotions is pradised deliberat(*ly. Any-
thiii|^. in faet, whieh will help the subject to become abnorm¬
ally susceptible to the infliu^nee of ideas is an aid to the
effective operation of suggestion.

Suggestibility depends largely on rmriure and herediiary
factors. We all vary in th(‘ degree to which, we are suggest¬
ible. On the whole, well-edueated people are relatively
unsuggestible. Considerable stores of knowledge, a reason¬
able amount of well-founded rational beliefs, an ability to
sum up situations with fair rapidity, all helj) to provide a
stable and we!l-int<‘grat(‘d tuiiid. On the other hand, young
children and primitive peoples are highly suggestibh‘; so
to a less extent is the moderii unedueated adult, particularly
in the mass : in such eases the mind lacks cohesion and
remains poorly integrated ; it lacks th(‘ mutually supporting
interaction of its constituent elenu iits which a sound educa¬
tion provid( s.

Amoiig thos(‘ numy factors whieh help t(» make* th(‘ sul)-
jeet’s mind susceptible to th(‘ irrational infliH'uee of ideas,
is th(‘ personality of tlu‘ agent froni whom the suggestion
originates. Ibmghly speaking, the agent’s power of sugges¬
tion depends upon whatev(T conduces to render liim impres¬
sive to th(‘ subj(x*t. Under this very wide heading wc may
include all those factors eondneive to respect of authority,
such as an otiieial position, age and experience, superior
talents, confident and authoritive maimer, rank, wealth
and social position. We mnsl include also the subject’s
beliefs eoneerning tlu' agent’s general reputation : th(‘ agent
may Ik‘ universally revspeeled, may b(‘ (‘onsidennl frightening
or mystfTious, ascetic or holy, or a pe rson in toue*h with the
divine. But fe)r the e>peratie»i eif suggcstie)n. more important
than all these e'emsideratieiiis, is the perseinality e)f the agent
himsedf: commanding pre\sene*e% strong elistinedive features,
a faculty of winning peejple’s ceinfidene'c, a phrasing voie*e,
an ability te) “ put it across ”, peiwcTful ph\ siepie, a gift e)f
wcj»rds. a flair for touching olf emotions, a eharaeder which
possesses the poweT eif gaining the* respexd, fear, reverence,
love or devotie)!! or others. Any of those eliverse ejualities
whieh may rendeT a personality “ magnetic ” to others,

SuCiGESTION

45

or which carry with them an atmosphere* of prestige and
authority, will in fact, (‘ontribute to the clfective* operation
of sugg<*siion.

(Icnerally sjieaking, a group or body of ]>cc)ple are more
susceptible* to the uncritical ae‘e*cptancc of ielc*as and beliefs
than a single individual. All our rueiral ce)eles, seicial ce>n-
ventioi»s, ariel religious beliefs arc examples of this form of
suggestion. All such code's, eonv(*ntions anel beliefs to
whie'h w(‘ hold so strongly are purely arbitrary and are
implanted in us during the uneTitie al period of our ehilelhooel
' the periexl at which we are* me)st susceptible' te) the inlhiene*e
e)f suggestion. I're)})agandists know full well the* inlluene'C
of s\igge'stion on tlw mind of a ehilel. C‘athe>Ue anel t'om-
munist alike know that the e'hilel e'an be ineluced to believe
anything if it is reiterated often enough. The ])rinciple of
constant reiteTatie)n as a nu'ans of etfee'ting suggestion is
see'll in beith trade advertising anel in the natieinalistie radio
])re)grammes of many eeiuntrii's.

While a body eir a mass eif people are able* te> inelue»e* un-
(•ritie'al acceptane'c eif ielcas in a single individual, far more
dramatic examples eif the power eif suggc'stion may be
effeeted by a single inelividual with an cmeitieinally excited
or expectant e'reiwel, particularly if the crowei is composed
of ignorant, uncultured persons. Iele*as can sweep thremgh
excited eTowds like wild-fire, no rnatt(*r how fantastic the
idea is. If the idea in (jucstion touches closely upon the
crowd’s beliefs, longings, or any other emotional spring, a
state of mass hysteria may develop ; mass delusions, illusions
and even hallucinations may occur. Under such conditions,
if one man cried out that he saw an angel hovering in the
sky with a flaming sword or brazen trumpet, there w'ould be
a dozen who subsecjuently believed they saw' the same sight;
and right up to the present day instances of mass hallucina¬
tion and illusion are still occasionally reported, mainly from
Southern Kurope.

Epidemics of hallucinations, ecstatic states, hysterical
convulsions, confessions of witchcraft, voluntary flagellation,
sweep spasmodically across the pages of history from earliest
times. Strongest among these epidemics is the uncontroll¬
able impulse to dance—sometimes intermittently for days
on end until total exhaustion seizes the dancers. The legend

46

Thk PvSyciiolocy of 'niK Occur.T

of the Pied I^ipcr of Hamelio probably originated in this way.
One of the last major ej)id(‘mi(‘s of hyst(Tieal daneing occurred
towards the (‘iid of tin* rnnet(‘enlh century in the great island
of Madagascar. Scorers of villages were involved over
thousands of square miles.

Much that can b(‘ said to lx* true of mild suggestion cannot
he said to apply ecjually to its more extreme manifestations.
As aln'ady noted, there (exists no adequate dcdinitioii of any
practical value which eov^ers both types of suggestion. The
effects of suggest ion <‘an be so ( xtrerne as to produce abnormal
changes in th(* bodily functions and nu^ntal processes. With
hysterical subjects who suffer from delusions, faulty im^niory,
hallucinations, or secondary states of eonseiousness, the
effect of suggestion can be almost limitl(‘ss, esptrially if such
patients are hypnotised.

The hypnotised hysteric has often been the* subject of
hypnotic experiments in th(‘ past, particularly in France at
Nancy and the Salp(^triere. Such experiments were not
always dire<*ted at the rapid recovery of the pati(‘nt, but
they were often of extreme int(‘resl. Temperatures of the
hand were reported as being raised or lowered, the pulse
beat aceelerated or retarded, fui\ctionaI paralysis of a limb^
local anaesthesia, many kinds of hallucination, aphonia,
deafness—these wctc some of the results reported as having
been achieved by hypnotic sugg(‘slion directed at patients
wdth advanced hysteria.

In hysteria and hypnosis we almost invariably find a great
increase in suggestil)ility. It is common knowledge that in
the fifteenth aod sixteenth centuries tens of thousands of
women were burnt at the stake' for w^itchcraft. A great
j)ercentage of these* women w'cre subje'ct to hysterical dis¬
sociation, and their eledusions, hallucinations anel secondary
peTsonalitic's took their form and ce>louring from the super¬
stitions and beliefs of the age. Great numbers readily
came to believe that they were* really witches and in league
with the devil. Their hallucinatory visie)ns showed them
evil spirits in abundance and even the devil himself, while
their secondary y^ersonalities assumed the mentfil attributes
of Satan or one of his legions- as tliey were then conceived—
and gave utterance accordingly.

Such women suffered a terrible fate. The hardship of

SlKJOKSTION

4T

their lives had produced the hysteria, which in turn laid their
minds ever more open to the pernicious beliefs of the day.
Such syndromes of hysteria as hallucinations, local anaesthe¬
sia and multiple personality convinced the woman herself
that she was a witeh. Her fears wer(‘ strerj^rtlu^ned by the
natun? of the hallucinations or what others told her of her
speeeli during her periods of clouded eonseiousness. From
then on, her own mind contributed adclitional ideas to be
absorbed by her stricken personality. Her own eonvietion
that she was a witeh and her terrifying sense of guilt, derived
from the continual propaganda of th(‘ (’atholie C'hureh and
the Inquisition often led her to confess openly her sinful
relationship with the devil. Her fate was then sealed. So
the vicious circle of suggestion and autosuggestion went on,
destroying first the minds and finally the bodies of the
WTetehed psychasthenic women, amidst an orgy of cruelty
and spite on the part of the “ normal ” population.

Among the most remarkable effects found by experimental
hypnotists was that of post-hypnotic su^estion. It was
found that wuth highly suggestible subj("cts an order could
be given during hypnosis whkdi would be carried out after
the subject had been awakened. The period betwe^en awak¬
ening and the performance of the command or ‘‘ suggestion
varied from a few minutes to several days or weeks, or in
some cases, even months ! If amnesia supervened, either
spontaneously or at the express command of the operator,
the subject seldom realised why he carried out a particular
irrational action at a particular time set by the operator.

Post-hypnotic suggestion has been much over-dramatised
by those who performed such expciriments. Their reports
lacked perspective and their generalisations were too sweep¬
ing. From these reports, however, emerged a simple fact,
namely that the effects of hypnotic suggestion could, in
certain circumstances, affect the subsequent behaviour of
the hypnotised subject to an unexpected degree.

Most people are today familiar with the term “ auto-
suggestion It means ‘‘ self-suggestion ”, as opposed to
hetero-suggestion or suggestion which comes from an outside
source. The use of either of the terms has never been satis¬
factory, since all suggestion really contains “ auto ” and

48

The Psyciiolo(;y ok the Occult

“ lietero elements. The distinetioji is in fael quite arbit¬
rary but is often eo!\vcnient to use.

We may perhaps sum up the situation as follows : where
another person is elcarly the active ag(‘nt of sug/jestion,
then we may be justified in referring to it as het(T()-su^^(‘stion.
W’here, on the other hand, the subject’s own mind is clearly
the instigator, we may (*onveniently refer to it as auto-
sugf^eslion. The didieulty arises with the border line eas<*s,
amon^ w^liieh, perhaps, the bulk of all suggc^stion-pheiumu^na
may be inelu({ed. In the ease of liypnotie suggestion the
hypnotist is preponderantly the suggesting agent. With
the primitive' tribesman or the hysb'rie who has conn to
believe, without real reason, than an (‘lU'iny is poisoning
him, and wlio begins to feel stonia(*h pains, often of extrenu'
intensity, the patient’s own imagination is prepondc'rantly
the suggesting ag(‘nt. But in such ('ases as faith-healing,
where the subject’s eonscious beliefs, idc*as and ('motions are
generally as much a contributory fac'tor to the operation of
suggestion as the w^ords or antics of th(‘ healer himself, the
dichotomy is seen to be an unsatisfactory one. The fa(*t
is that all auto-suggestion is ultimately d('j)endent, however
rc'motely, on ('xtraneous factors of which direct li(‘t('ro-
suggestioii may be one amongst others.

A very goo(i example of auto-suggestion in ev(*ryday lih'
is provided by those* individuals who possess the* faculty of
waking uj> at whatever hour they decide* upon be'fore going
to sleep. The subconscious mind receives the suggestion,
estimates eorre'ctly the passage of time a thing wdiich il
often docs wry we*ll and consciousne*ss returns at the
stipulated hour.

Many functional disabilities with an hysterical background
arc brought on by autosuggestion. A sho(*k or ae*eident
resulting in a slight or temporary injury may be^'orne so
greatly c'xaggcrated in the mind of the patient that he
becomes convin(*ed he is suflering from a permaiumt injury.
Latent hysteria may provide both the* requisite state of
suggestibility and the suberonseious motivation which is
generally traceable in such eases. On the other hand auto-
suggestion may also cure such disturbances, sometimes
with dramatic suddenness, a facitor which has been largely
instrumental in perpetuating the belief in “ miracle ” cures.

Chapter Five
IIYSTFRIA

^^IIJKF ainon^^st those* nhiionnal psychological phcnoiiu*MM
which have play(‘(l a lar^(‘ ])arl in (h(‘ crt‘atioii anei

p(T])Ctnation of so many occult Ix^licts and practice's arc
those flue' to pathoIo^i<*aI hysieria. "riu* reason for this is
tliat hysteria is accompiinieel by two important factors :
increas<‘(l su^oestihility whieh, togi*ther with a naturally
uneritieal state eif mind, makers the erc’ation of (l(‘lnsions in
th(‘ subject's mind a relativ<*ly easy naitteT; and a whole'
host of accemipanying psy(*Jiok)gicHl anomalies earlie r not(‘d,
such as vivid aiul sudden altea-ations in pe'rsonality. tcmt)o-
rjiry loss of ideaitily, paralysis, local analgesia or loe*aIiscd
insensitivity to pain, autoinatie* writing, i?)voluntary sjx'aking
(“ inspiration "), the onset of a varit^ty of funetional elise ases
(and often tlx'ir sudeh'ie eaire), somnambulism during which
th(‘ individual carries out actions without Ix'iug able* to
remember the'in subsc(ju(*nlly, visual hallucinations or
“visions”, auditory hallucination ine*luding the he*aring
of “voices”, and ex’casionally hyperacuity e>f the* s<‘ns«‘s:
to these, anomalie's, may be a.dd(‘(i a greatly h(‘ight<‘eie*d
histrionic ability.

Some* types of hysterical patients show the most ama/ing
d(^velopments of the independent f)ovv(*rs of the* subconscious
rnifid. Instead of co-ordinating itself us(*fully with tlx-
individuals’ conscious recpiirc'incnts, it may Ix'conu' largt'ly
divorced from this, its main function, and start off on a
separate course of activity on its own ; that form of sub¬
conscious mental activity which normally takes on an auto¬
nomous activity of its ow^n in dreams is s«)mctimes seen

tl)

50

The PSYCHOT.OGY OF THE OcCULT

(‘xaggcrat(Kl to such an extent that it may beconu^ a very
grave mental afflietion.

Ill liysteria, too, the snbeons(‘ious mind may show consider¬
able powers of creative intelligence. It may show equal
powers of eiiuning and craftiness, and not infrequently
been known to perpetuate systematic and sustained de¬
ceptions upon the conscious min<l of th(* patient. eonecTned.
This is also to lu' see n in the mediumistie trance and in much
automatic writing. In these instances the medium or
automatic writ<T geiHTally comes to regard the “ messages
produced by sucli nuans as emanating from spirits of the
dead or even from God himsi lf, and the styl(‘ and contents
of tht‘ trance utterances and automatic* scripts do little to
l<*ssen the illusion. But in such cases it is not always wise
to talk of the “ subconscious mind ” alone as be ing respon¬
sible. Th(‘ problem is a gr(‘at d(*al more (^omjilicatcd than
that. So often ther(^ is a willingiu\ss in the* subjcH to be
deceived a Avillingncss whicdi the latter su(*cessfully dis¬
guises from himself by an extreme form of wishful thinking,
in such cases the distinction between autonomous a(*tivity
of the subconscious mind and conscious m(‘ntal activity is
not always practicable.

It is an almost invariable* rule that subconscious mental
activity lacks the cohesion which eonsciousn(*ss provides.
In certain circumstances, however, the adaptability and
intelligence displayi*d by such mental activity debars us
from making any hard and fast ruling on the subject. In
fact, all sucli hard and fast boundari(*s b(*tween one set of
psychological functions and anoth(*r an* to be avoided on
})rinci})le. Such boundaries are no more than convenient
divisions in the psychologist’s system of working concepts,
and must never be taken as indications marking actual fields
of observation. Many an amateur psychologist, and not a
few professionals, have blundered seriously by their failure
to take this fact into account.

Pathological hysteria must not be confused with the
commonly accepted notion of hysteria as an (motional
attack of convulsive laughing or crying. This type of
outbreak, often seen in women who have had a shock or
been through a trying time, is only a minor form of hysteria.

Hystkkia

51

and in psyrhopailiolo^ry the term “ hysteria ” is usually
reserved* for mental disorders of a dei'per and more complex
nature of which some indication has already b(‘(*n ^nven.

A hard and fast definition of hysteria is not (*asiiy forth¬
coming : the te rm is ^(‘nerally us(‘d to connote conditions of
menial instability and immoderate suggestibility, and is very
frequ<*ntly eharaeterised by the phenomenon of dissociation
in marked degree. It rangers in severity from mild neurotic
t(‘nd(‘nei('s to actual insanity. Most victims of hysteria are
in a meidal state a]jproaehing the juvenile which may
largely account for the fact that nearly all hysterics are
highly suggestible.

In abnor?nal psyehology th(‘ two most iinportant theories
of hysteria have been those of Jaiu t and Fnaid. There is
a eertain similarity betwtrn them. Hri(*lly, Jamt's view
was tliat the disordcT was due to laek of (‘ohesion in the
pcTSonality, and that in eonsecjiuriec* eertain ideas were
“split off” or became dissociated from ih(* main numtal
system which constitutc^s tlu' (*onseious personality —the
dissociated ideas y)ringing about independently the hysterical
synqdoms. Freud’s theory, on tlu^ other liand, ])ostulales
the active re[)ression of ideas, desir(\s and memori(‘S and a
refusal to allow them to (‘liter eons(*iousness because* they
eonfliet with the ne(‘ds, aims and normal outlook of the
individual. The n^sult is that Mu* repress(‘d w'ishes and
ideas emerge in sonu* other disguised form.

Without going into the numerous antithe tical asp(*ets of
the general theories of Freud and Janc't, it must be observed
that much of the difr(‘rene<‘ can be cxplain(*d as mere ly a
difllerenec in the teTins use‘el. PVeajd’s reprcss(‘d wishes and
eomple^xes, and Janet’s dissociated ideiis, both operate* un-
eonsciously and with an autonomy of their own to produce
the same obseTvable results.

Both their theories, if compared with the* standards of
other sciences, are vague and ill-de*fined. Nevortheiess th(*y
have their uses, and it is perhaps on account of the vagueness
of definition that many of the eoncepts used by the followers
of these two psyehopatliologists may, in some respects, be
used in conjunction. For example, it is not difficult to
interpret Janet’s dissociation theory of hysteria in terms of

52

Tiik Psy( h<>i.<)(;y or thk Ocrvi/r

Freudian repression^ and vice versa^ for the latter eoncept
inevitably infers dissoeiation of some kind.

Hysteria, aeeording to Janet, is the prodnetion of TYuadal
dissociation, and aeeordin^r to Fn^ud is the [)roduet of un-
conseious mental eonfliel due to the repression of natural
instincts. Today the psychiatrist makes eonsid(Table use
of both these terms while largely i^norin^ the theoretical
struelurcs which subsume them. In al)normal psychology
the tendency has txen to fus(‘ the Freudian atul Janetian
hypotlieses into a relatively hoinof]f(‘neous practical working
theory ; and tJiis in turn has sueeeeded in redueiiiff the
somewhat artificial theories of botli expomads to somdliiny
mor(‘ acceptable to the demands of common sense. The
resultant composite theory of hysteria has been broadly
generalised by Professor V. E. FisluT thus : Li‘t us rathe r
say siniply that hyste ria is a result of mental conflicts within
a jx rsonality wtiich is not strongly enough integratc^d to
witlisliind tin* strain im])osed.'’ * Such a broad generalisa¬
tion as tliis lifis little practical value but it does serve to
indicate the type of probk^n with which all erases of hysteria
present us. Hysteria is fundarmaitally the* rc^sult of thci
irud)ility of the individual to cope with the strain imposed
by his environment. It is so often a eas(‘ of tli(‘ spirit being
willing but the ?nind being weak and it occurs JVeqiuaitly in
people of high principles whose mental fibre* is not up to the*
demands imposed upon it.

Hysteria occurs when there is continual conflict between
the natural inipuls(!S and the* demands of duty, loyalty,
social conventions, and moral standards. The latter are
constantly interfering with the full expression of our natural
imj)uls(*s, but in the average person a balance is successfully
maintained between the two our normal mechanism of
repression providing enough give-and-take to avoid undue
strain. In th(* neurotic individual, however, the eonflict is,
as it were, pushed underground, the patient may not even be
aware of the conflict in existence. The result is that the
more ])rimitive impulses find expression in disguised forms,
sonietimes useful, as when “ sublimation oc^eurs, and often
retrograde, as in hysteria.

* Introduction to Abnormal Psychology^ p. 235.

II YSTr:i{i.\

Thr oocumMicc of repressioi) urul disscx'hition is not ordin¬
arily a sipn of j)sy(*holo^i(*al (lisordcr. Their (*xtrc‘?no
manifestations are, as in the ease of the advanecd hysterie,
(*X(‘eptional; in the average i!\divi<l\ial they are simply a
jiorinal part of his mental ma(*hin<T\. We S(‘<‘ dissociation
aeeiirring ev(‘rv lime w(‘ eonecadratc^ on oik‘ Ihing while
automati(‘ally doing another, sueli as diseussi’ig a business
project while going through the iidrieate rnotioTis of eating
dinner. Kc^jmvssion, too, fonr‘s a part of I lie rniiurs normal
protective meelianism. For vvlien fae(‘d with two o]>posing
s(‘ts of ideas, or two antith<di<*al impulses, om‘ is ref)ress(»d
so that the oth(‘r may r(‘sul1 in action ; if vv(‘ stopped to
w(‘igh th(‘ r(‘speeti\ nuaits of each idea or impulse on rational
gronnils alone', \\v should Ix' in a state* of (*hronie indecision,
lint wJien the mechanisms of repnssion and dissociation
work ov(‘rtim(‘, hyste ria is liable* tei re'siilt.

Fveryeme is familiar with the* simple* act eif repre'ssing a
momentary impulse*. Such impulses usually take* the form
of a sudden ieha which is linked to a streing emotieinal urge?.
It may be* a suelelen eU'sire to slap Aunt Agatha's fae*e* eir, in
the? ease eif a e*hilel, te) pull Fnele Teiby’s neise. One‘'s '' hetle‘r
nature'’ usually e*omcs to the fore in lime* and the impulse
is repre*sse"d anel seion fdrgeitten. It may happen, however,
tint the eontliet betwe'cn one's “ better nature ” and one 's
more primitive* impulses, desire's, nee'els anel emotions takes
em a ineire |)e*rmane*nt form. The* fnistrate*el ye>ung woman,
feir example, who feels ohiigeel tei remain at henne to loe>k
afte'r her ailing jiarents may heine'stly be‘lieve she eloe*s this
e)ut e)f le)vc feir them. Snheeinseienisly, howeve*r. she* hate-s
the druelge'ry anel loneline'ss anel longs te) get away, hut she
ke*eps the'se thoughts out e)f her miuel repressed, Assoeiate'el
with these repre?sse*ei anel e'motional ide'as there may he* others,
such as actual hate e>f lu*r parents wliemi she ele'e*e'ive*s herself
into believing she* le)ve's.

It is well known that ieleas n('Ve‘r enter the* mine! alone*
for any length e)f time. Th(‘y are* always associated with
otheT ieleas or with meme)rk?s. All er(*ative thinking is
dej)enelent upon the e*merge*ne?e of vivid trains of iele*as anel
asse)(?iated meme)ri(?s ste)re*el up fremi past e*xperie*nee*s wdiieh
well up into e’onseiousness fremi the* siibe*onseions minel.

54

TuK PsYC hOLOGY OF THE OcCULT

Often these ideas ar(‘ strongly tinged with emotion ; the
i(iea of red, for example, may bring into the mind the thought
of Communism with its a(‘eompanying feelings of resentmerit,
dislike and fi‘ar -or their opposites—depending on how the
individual feels about the subjeet.

It is sometimes convenient to regard the suheonseious
mind as a hinterland of past (‘xperienees, memoric's, emoti<ms,
desires and idc^as, all witliout eoliesion, lacking all homogene¬
ity vmtil they vuivr the lield of eonseioiisness. Their group¬
ings aiul l(*nij)orary co-ordinations are capable of limitless
variety and are responsible for all our irrational id(‘as, impul¬
ses, actions, pnjiidiees and erjthusiams. Whefi we f(‘el lazy
and shvpy this ‘Vstirring and teeming wilderness” pursues a
happy ehaoti(‘ (*xistenee, oeeasionally ei^tering our field of
eonseiousness betwciai slee])ing and waking in the guise of
dreams.

When associations of emotionally charged ideas are
actively r(*j)r(ssed from entering eonseiousness, as in the
above example of tlu* frustrat(‘d young woman, tlu'V may
form ati association wdiieh becomes endow^ed with some
degr(M* of autonomy of its own. Such .an association is
eonmu)!dy called a mental complex.

Kverybody has minor eompl(‘xes of one sort or another,
but th(‘se are usually allow’^ed some form of expression so far
as this is j)raetieable. Such minor (!onipl(‘xes may find
expression in indirect ways, in sublimation, or else be so dis¬
guised that the individual takes no notice or is enabled to
ratioTialise about them without any difheulty. They are
often to b(‘ seen colouring and giving shape to our dreams.
Soiru'times tlie rej)r(\ssion is eomplet(‘ly suce(*ssful a?Kl the
coinj)l(*x is only able to affect the general tone of our thoughts
and actions in a mild way.

Occasior)ally, howev(T, strong eomplex(‘S ,and other
products of subconscious mental strain and internal conflict,
result in the* t(‘eming array of ideas, numiories and (motions
which hib(Tnat(‘ in the subconscious mind, thesis form more
or less integrat(‘d subsidiary mental systems, which con¬
tinually strive to nuikc themselves felt in the conscious
mental life of the individual. In hysteria they succeed only
too w ell. In very severe erases all the repressed emotionally

Hysteria

55

c'hargi‘(l ideas may so sueeeed in vvcakenin^j^ th(' main rncmtal
system constituting tiu* normal personality that th(‘y are
able to eriKTgc fully into the field of eonseioiisn(‘ss, entirely
ilisplaeing the normal personality. This oeeurs, for ('xam[)le
in hysterical fugu(‘s, better known liy the pojnilar term
loss of meujory When this happens, a completely m w
personality may (*merg(*, tlH‘ old personality being totally
repressed and with it all those memories with which the old
personality was assoeia((‘d. Th(‘ person eoneerned suddenly
finds liimself unable to recall who he is, where h(‘ liv(‘s or
anything of his jiast life.

In som(‘ eases, where the individual has su(f(‘red some
S(‘vere emotional shock, the memory of the incident may
laeome repressed beyond eons(‘ious neall. only to canerge
in the form of an intermitbaitly recurring somnaiubulie
pantomime, the ])atient involunlorily n'-onaeting the original
scene which eans(‘d the distress.

Milder easevs of hystcTia may be brought about nuTcIy by
an nneongeiiial life, this is a bunhai borm^ by many ordinary
people of unimpressive' personality and attainments, who
find no outlet for their more grandiose ideas and desires.

Normally all our rc\)ress(‘d wishes, subconscious needs and
frustrated ambitions remain in the nebulous ineoluTC'ut
state of vague subeonseioiis mental aedivity which only (*nlers
into our eonseiousness in the fantasies of our daytime reveries
and our dreams. Most people wlio lead a practical existence
keep a proper balance between llie jiraetieal and the more
imaginative sides of fla ir mental life. The mediocre Vmt
highly imaginative pe rson, however, who has had to rejiress
the imaginative side of his nature through the exigencies of
gaining a livelihood, may exhibit a tendenev to a mild form
of hysteria in which the repressed side of his nature fimls
expression in auto?natie writing or in slight trance* state's;
in the lattx'r ease he will be epiite likely to capitalise* his
hysterical ieiuleneie's by becoming a spiritualistic medium.
In automatic se*ri]>ts and in the verbal uile*rane(\s of the
inediumistie trance, the hysterical individual is often able
to give full but vicarious expression to the instinctive
longings for admiration, love, wealth and autliorily which
are rooted in his being.

Tin: PsYC’iroLocY of the 0(X’iM/r

5(>

Psyc*holi)^ify can tt^ll us little (‘uough about such needs
and lon^inj[fs. Tlu* j)sycJiologist has been nbic to do little
more than rou^dily disccTn the patterns of int(Tplay between,
and the tensions arising from, th(‘ fundamental conflict
between the* primitive* instincts of reproduction and s(*lf-
preservation. Hehind all activities of the mind lies the vast
world of ft*ars, longings, iileas, thoughts, instincts, memories
and in^pressions which the psychoanalytical schools e)f
psychoth(Tapy collectively term the ITnconscious. Although
Fr(*udian and similar tlu‘ori(*s may hav(* a (*crtain ])ractical
value in the tr(*atm(‘nt of hysl(*ria, they cannot be said in
any senst* ia explain it.

The manifestations of hysteria an* eiulhss owing to the
capacity of tiu* hysteric* for imitatioF) and his responsiveness
to suggestion. For example, if a hyst(*ri(‘al woman sudd(*nly
starts to scream out that she is burnifig in a hospital ward,
her cries and gestures of terror may very e asily rouse one or
two patients with latefit hysterical tende ne'ie s into the same
state of hallucinatfjry frenzy, cither at the same* time* or
even hours afterw^ards. The mass outbursts of religious
ecstaev iiF the* middle ages was due to the same eoml>ination
of imitatiem and suggestion. These “ (*estatie ” states sonic-
times brought with them epieer “ syndromes ” ; mass
self-flagellation for e xample ; or odder still perhaps, daneing
mania, a hysterie*al eoinjiulsion to dane*e until exhansteel,
virtually whole populations of towns and villagc*s being
involved o?i eieeasion, A famous outbr(*ak eif hysteTieal
dan<*ing starl(*d in 15^47 in Aix-la Fhappelle and sj)re*a(l for
se veral wee*ks throughout the \(*therlaiids.

Some* of the* more* eomnion of hysterical j)e‘culiariti(‘s are*
referre‘<l to by appropriate t(‘ehnie*al names : chaswus hystrri-
cm or hyste‘ri(*al yawning; acropha^ia or the* habit of air
swallowing by some hysterics; f^elasmus e)r hyst(‘ri(*al
laughter; hysteTieal arrokmesis or extreme* activity in
swinging arms anel legs : hysterical polypnea or ve-ry rapid
breathing wdiich occasionally ends in a catale ptic traner '
possibly (Inc to the* exhaustion of the cartion-elioxidc in the
blood; hysterical agitophasia or talking with extreme
rapidity; hy stcrie'al spa.sinodysjm€a which may result in
stuttering, hysterical asthma, or glolrns hysieriCH a “ lump

IIVSTKIdA

57

in the throat” wJiioh }3roduoos a sonsatioii of (*hokiii^;
hysterical x^aninisinufi or spasiiioclie eontraetions of the
vagina generally brought about by eitluT revulsion from,
or (ieprivation of, sexual intercourse'; hysterica! trichotillo-
matiia, a eonditirai in which the patient fn'nziedly t<‘ars the
hair; hyst(‘rieal chorea nr St. V'itus’ I)ane(% which imitates
orgajhe ehor(*a in the s])asmodic‘ twitching of the face,
shoulder or arm muscles ; hysterical oarcolepay, in which
the subject is afflicted witli siiddc'ii and spontaneous short
periods of deep sU*(‘p througlumt the da\' ; hysirro-cpileysy
or the onset of violent convulsions in imitation of an epilcf>tie
fit, which often during th<' Middle Ages took a form known
as demoniacal ])ossessiorj ; catalepsy, in which tlu* patient
loses consciousness and which is sometimes accompanied
by a state of extreme rigidity or }>lastie resistaTU*e of the
linibs; hysterical abrosia or fasting, to be differentiated
from hysterical anorciria in which tin* patient simply lacks
an appetite; hysteri(*al oniovtania in w hich the pati(*nt
makes purchases indiscriminately and rc^eklessly.

Another small group of hyst(‘rieal syndromes are of
(*0!)sideraV)le interest in that tiny show*^ clearly the sul)conS“
cious motives wdiich lie behind them : for exampl(‘, astasia-
abasia, or funetioiial inability to stand or walk despite the
fact that the patient retains good muscular co-ordination
W'hile lying in b('d. In hnsophohia, on the oth(‘r hand, the
hysterical fear of falling effeetivclx' ))rev('nts the patient
from even making the attemjd to stand or walk. If he
does try, he falls. In liystiTieal aiianastasia, the patient is
unable to raise liimself from a reeumherjt to a sitting position,
while acathisia is the t(‘rm used to denote the inability of a
hysterica! ])ati(*nt to remain in a sitting position. Such
syndromes as these an* clearly due to the subconscious
desire* to escape* from the harsh ivalilies e)f the* world by
sinking ba(*k into eeuiveiiient invalidism. Such eases in
former times were* included uneler the* vague term of ” ])alsy
They are often curable by suggestion, sometimes with drama¬
tic sueldcnncss, a fact which has hclpcel perpeduate* the^
belief in niiraedc-cures.

In medieval times, to be* sick of the palsy denoted
any form of paralysis, whether it was due to organic or to

58

'rHK PvSY( lIOJ.CMiY OF TIIF OcX ULT

psychogenic* cause's, e.g. hysteria. Since* the inc'clic'al pro¬
fession of Uie (lay kne w virtually nothing of the a<*tiology
of disease this is not surprising. Only j)sye*hogenie ])aralysis
is directly curable by tlie? use of suggestion or othc'r }>syeho-
logieal nic'ans. The* e’oniinoiK'st forms of hyste'rieal paralysis
are hysterical monoplegia or functional ])aralysis of a single
group of muscles or a single limb; hysU‘rie*al hemiplegia or
functiomil j)aral\ sis of one side of the* body o?dy ; and
liyste'rie*al paraplegia, or functional paralysis of the lower
half of the luxly.

Fune*tif)nal paralysis doe's not (‘onfc.rm to the* well ele'fincd
areas marke*d by the distribution of the nerve^s as in e»rga?iic
paralysis, but only to those ar(‘as which conform to the
patie*nt’s une'iilighte iied idc'as on the subjc'ct. A well known
form of tiyste rieal monoplegia is write r’s cramp, which is
almost always trae‘e‘able to psychogt*nie eause‘s, Cle'rks and
oth(‘rs who have* a gre*at de al of tnonotonous writing to do are
the* most common sufferers.

Total ])syehogenie* j)aralysis a})j)ears to have* been re^
ported seldom, if ever, in the ])syehologieal literature of
modern time's. Its place has bee*n taken by the cataleptic
trance. Hut in more remote e*enturit‘s, total, or n(*ar tt)tal,
functional paralysis may hav^e be*en ejiiite* a common hysteri-
caf syndremie, j)ossibIy owing to the opportinutics ])re*se*nte*d
for the imitation of organic* paralytics, who did not poss(*ss
the* same facilities as today for secluele'd care.

Superfie*ially allied to functional i)aralysis are hyslcrie*al
a/naesihesia or absense* of cut.ane*ous sensation, and }iysterie*al
analgesia or absense* of pain se*nsitivity. One* or other of
llic'se not infre*eju(*ntly accompanie'S hvst(*ri(*al paralysis in
the are*a alfe'cted. In the Middle Ag(*s small lo(*alise*d are*as
of hysterical analgesia on the body of a woman were rc'gardcd
as the Devil’s brand. Many a poor hysteric was burnt alive
for f)osse‘ssing thean, a fact which modern psy(*hiatrists
would have* elidie'ulty in explaining as an ‘‘ advantage
gahieel ”. In more [)rimitivc tinie\s the* effe*e*t of suggestion
iipem liysterie*al pe*rse)ns often produced synelronu's for which
the me)elern psyehiatrie! th(*ory e)f hysteria would pre)ve an
jnaeleepjate (‘xplanation.

Sue*h te*rms as glove anaesthesia and stocking anaesthesia

Hystkiua

r>9

and hemianalgesia were used by Jaiud: to di‘scribe hysterieal
anaesthesia pertaining to the corresponding area of the hands
feet and one side? of tii(‘ body respectively. Such (dfecis do
not conform to neurological ])atterns and are not produced
by organic disordcTS ; tlu^y therefore reflect the patient’s
naive ideas or else, in modern times, they may result from
unint(‘ntionaI suggest irms given by the psy(‘hopathologist
during the course of his investigations.

In su<*h phenomena as hysterical analgesia, we are faced
with a ps\('hologieal ilfect wliieh is beyond the power of
the conscious will of the patient to imitate. In one tvj)e of
major hysteria, for (‘.\amj)lc‘, th(‘ eoriu'a that highly sensitive
transparent e(»v<ring of the eye-ball- may be touched
without th(‘ patient showing the least sign of pain. The
sain(‘ phenomena is ol ten observed in eatatonie schizophrenia.

In liyst.(Tieal hi/jwracsfhrsia wv have a subjective disorder
which renders the patie nt sul)j(‘ct to th(‘ illusions or hallucina¬
tion of a great iiKTease of sensory acuity. This is sometimes
aecom])anied by a eons(‘(juent eoneentration and fixity of
attention which may result in the illusion b(‘coming allied
to fact. Hallucinations of taetih' hyperatdhc'sia can become
so extreme as to produ(*(‘ what is called hysteri(»al haphalgcsia.
The liaphalgesia patient suffers torments from the pressure
of Ids clothing or tlu* weight of his bed-clothes.

Hysterical topoaJgia is th(‘ term given to localised pain,
often of great severity, where no orgaide cause can be traced
and which is ineom|)atabl(* with the distribution of the
S(‘nsory nerves. As will b(‘ seen in later chapters, suggested
topoalgia is in large part accountable for many all(‘gedly
occult phenomena in t.lu‘ literature of stigmata, lyeaiithropy,
faith lu'aling and sorcery.

Other functional syndronus are liysterieal aphonia or
7nutiwin the hysteric being unable to utter sounds or to speak ;
copiopia, or hysterical eye-strain; hysterieal anopsia or
blindness ; hysterical hemianopsia^ or the* ability to s(‘(' only
one half of the visual fi(‘ld, wiiich is generally due to involun¬
tary sugg(‘stion by the jisycopathologist during an examina¬
tion.

In another class of hysteria may be mentioned ihv fugue.
or temporary forgetfulness of personal identity and memory

00

TliK PSYC IIULOGY or Til K Oi rULT

of the past, with a t(‘n(l(*nf*y to wamlt r fron\ home ; hysteri¬
ca cvmttvsia or temporary but coiii[)letc inability to recall
particular periods or events in ilu* past, j)articularly after
an a(‘(‘i(lent or sliock ; 'tmiUiple pcrsannlity or lh(‘ apparent
{‘\ist<‘iic(‘ of two or more altcTival in^ ]HTS()nalities in the
same person ofl<‘n with a(*companyinjL»‘ amiu^sia.

Analoofous manifestations to multi])l(‘ personality arc
seen in differ(‘n( and less developed forms in the mediumistic
tramr: in .tmoglnssia the uncontrollable utterance of
uiiint(*lli^nble sounds uiuler the influence of mystical or
re!i|Lrious (‘xc'ittaucad, known euphemistically as ‘‘ sp(*aking
in unknown toneme s ' in auiomatic rvritiufi ; in sornnam-
huhffih or slc c'p walkinir and somniloquisv} or talking in sl(*(‘p ;
in dcnanruical jutssession of the Middle* A^(*s : in hysterical
Dhspnailon or automatic spee(*h. usually on religious, mysti¬
cal or moral thc iues ; and in hyst(‘ri(*al frnizip wliich is
dclibc ratc ly induced by many primitive* seots. notably some*
dervish cults. All the*se dissociative* phe*nome‘na may be
followe'd by partial or total amne-sia of the dissociative
period.

Mystea’ical somnambulism de‘se‘rvcs a briof note* to itself.
There* arc two recopfnised types. In monoldrir sovinmnlnilism
the same ritual or pantomime is e*arrie‘d out each time the
somnaTubulic attack oceairs ; in seve*re* e*ase‘s tliese* attacks
may take* place s])(jntaneously during the* subject's waking
lioiirs. In polyidric soniiiavihulisin- ihv average sle*cp-walk-
ing f)e*rforman(*e* varie*d bediaviour results. There follows
almost invariably total amnesia in re'gard to the* somnam-
bulie* attack. Many authe>ritie*s state, howe've*r, that unde*r
hypnosis the ae*tions during the attack e*an be* re*call(‘d to the
subj(‘e*l's mind.

Me>st of the* pathological syndronie-s mcntione*d above are
not f*onfine‘d to hysteria aleme. They are* also found in organic
pathology and in the* pathology of psychosis or insanity.

A broad te rm use*el to cover the various functional elisorde^rs
of hyste ria is hysterical pathomimesis, or tlie imitation of
pathological symptoms in order to resolve* tensions arisiiig
from subcemscious me ntal conflict. Hysterical pathomime¬
sis, howewer, must md be* confused with de liberate (‘onse*ie)u.s

> \v\<. *2. Ma.

HYvSTKRIA

61

inalin^erinj^. Adjuathr illness is another term \ise(l in
psychiatry ; this term, however, is not confined to hysteria
alone, but includes all psyehoneurotic flights into illness
whether real or feign(‘d.

Under modern (‘ivilised (conditions hysterical symptoms
most often occur when the ordinary human sentiments and
emotions, such as love, fear, hate, boredom, (‘omc into conflict
with the dictates of conscience and the (‘alls of duty or social
behaviour and have to be repressed. Where the nuiral or
social obligations necessitate com})lcte repression of the
natural instincts and the ideas asso(‘iated W'ith them. hystcTi-
eal fatigue and exhaustion may r(‘sult, parti(‘ularly in the
with the dictates of conscien(‘e and the calls of duty or social
simpler, less com[)lex, type of personality which umjuestion-
ingly accepts the contemporary social mor(‘s of the com¬
munity.

The soldier, for (*xaniple, who (for fear of being labelled
a coward) rcfus(‘s to face up to the possibility that he is
becoming nervous and easily exhausted under battle (‘ondi-
tions, simply pushes all such thoughts out of his licad and
carries on courageously doing his duty. The cause of his
exhaustion is due to the conflict between his fear and his
sense of duty ; his own contempt for cowardice helps him to
ignore the conflict and k(‘ep it out of conscious awareness.
But it is not to b<‘ rcpress(‘d in this fashion with impunity.
He becomes easily fatigu(‘d, irritable, and even brutal.
Then something occurs which gi\ es liim a chance of getting
out of the battle line altogether. A shell explodes near
him. He believes himself hit. Jn his highly emotional
and suggestible state a dramatic process oi‘ auto-suggestion
may occur; and when he finds himself unable to see for a
few seconds lu* believes himself perman(*ntly blinded, and
from then on it apj>ears to him as if he has lost the use of his
sight. The soldier is, naturally, withdrawn from combat
as unfit, which allows his repressed fear to have its way without
in any way alloxving him to fed that he hm failed in his duty.
He is not aware of the subeonsedous motives underlying his
functional anopsia nor of the subconscious mental conflict
which produced it. When it is explained to him by the
psychiatrist and lie fully understands the reasons underlying
his malady, the dissociative barrier eventually disappears,

I'hk PsYCTiof.ofiY or TiiK Occult

sonicfiiiirs in only a few s<‘eon(ls ; lu' is then able to return
to duty if this is demanded of him.

Fun(‘tional disorders may often l>e simulated and it is the
duty of the ])asyehiatrist to distinguish betwcT-n the genuine
hysterieal patient and Ihe one' who is merely swinging the
lead In many bordcTline eases, howevcT, the distinction
is a very tine one*.

When the hysterieal pati(M)t suffers from a functional
disability, it is reasonably certain that that very same disa¬
bility has caiabled liim to avoid eontinuing to do something
to which duty or otluT social pr(\ssure would oth(‘rwis(‘ have
eompc'lled him. It is ollen the single-minded person with a
firm sense' of duty who sutfc'rs from hysteria. Tlu* lazy pc'r-
son who knows h(‘ is lazy exerts himsc'lf but little to flo what
is ('X]K'et(‘d of him, and is not likely to suHer from any sub-
eonseious mental eonfliel ; nor is the* (‘oward who admits
his eowardi(*e to himsc'lf, for tlu' mental eonlliet will then take
])laee in the full light of consciousness and will not remain
rc'pressed. Furthermore, by shirking or slacking, much
s(‘V<‘r(* iiK'iital strain is avoided. Th(*s(‘ individuals have no
need for a devace whereby nature* renio\7‘s th(‘ pat ieni from an
intrinsically Ivateful situation without causing him consciously
to act contrary to his j)rinciples. I'he factory worker who
injures his arm, and finds that it remains paralysed after all
signs of physical injury have' elisappeare'd, is subconsciously
providing himself with a reason for avoiding the work he
hates without otfeneling liis ('go or his eonseic'iu'e by any
stigma of shirking.

A number of liysterieal syndrome's, spo?itan('ous somnam¬
bulism for example, are in every way de'trimental to the
safety, health and e^omfe^rt of the individual eonce^rne'd, a
faet whi(!h modern })syehiatri(‘ theory is apt to ignores In
more naive and credulous ages, when irrational }>elie^f largely
dominat(‘el the irumtal life of an individual, the effe^'t of
suggestion iip(3n hysterieal persons produced harmful syn¬
dromes wliich we^re out of all proportion to any benefits
gained and often h'd to e'omplete mental derangement.
Even in modern times, when psychiatric aid has not been
forth(!oming, hysteria may oe^easionally end in total insanity.

During tfie last century hysteria was the commonest of
the ne'urotie ailments in Europe. From approximately

IIystkkta

o;3

the cihI of the ecntury onwards, owin^ to ehaii^in^^ s()(*ial
conditions, wider cdueatioru the disa|)|>earanc(‘ of rigid
beliefs and harsh discipline and many otluT faetors, hysteria
as a m urotie symptom a.pp(‘ar(‘d l(‘ss and l<‘ss oft(‘n. The
(ir<‘al War, hovvcv(T, j)rotin(*ed a gr(*at FTvival of hysi(Tical
(*as(‘s among tlic lroo])s of all nations. I'liis fillip io th(‘
statistics of hysterical incidence* was largely an artificial one,
bronglit. about by the ,abnormal strains and tensions of active*
warfare*. During the* scce)nd world war gross liystcrical
syndromes were considerably l<*ss pre‘V'ale‘nl, e*hicfly owing
to the gre*at aelvam*e‘s in mass e‘diie‘ation and the* i)roade*ning
of the* mind through such m(*dia as l)oe>ks. radio and the:
cineana. The* te nde'ucy to other forms of ])sych()n(*urosis,
e>n tlic othe*!* haneh was far greateT.

The* lessening of the incid(*nee of hyst(*ria by the influence
of (*(hication was noted in the first world war. Both William
13row\v and MacDongall noted that tlic rank and hie tended
to hysteria while* the oflieers, drawn ahnost entir(*ly from
the* eelue‘ate*el elasse's, teneled te) e)ther forms e)f psyehoncure)sis.

In civilised ce)untrie*s toelay, eavses e)f gre)ss hysterical
sympte)ms arc conij)aratively rare. This, is elue to the
infliuaicc e)f libeTal e‘elue‘atie>n in integrating the inelivieluars
mine! and fortifying it against t*xtremes of disse)eiation,
anel to the* comparative freedom fre)m religious, social and
demiestie* e*ompulsie)ns and r<*straints whie*h aelele‘d to the
strain and monotony of life in fe)rme*r years. In the East,
liowe‘ve‘r, gross hyste'rieal eon\"ersie)n symptoms are still
comme>n. Yet it is in many ways te) be regrctteel that this
easily curable mental elisorder is being supersed(*d by other
and inoje insidious type*s e)f mental neuroses such as schizo¬
phrenia. For whereas hysteria me*r(ily enables the patient
to avoid the dilliculties of his lif(* by allowing him to drop
his responsibilities without consciously trangressing his own
moral eod(*, the schizophrenic solves the saint* difficulty by
wdthdrawung into an inner world of his own, supplanting
the reality of the phenomenal universe for a reality of his
own devising ; it is not easy, it is often impossible, to bring
him out of his world of fantasy.

The hysteric is naturally highly suggestible; and the
wrong type of suggestion, whether deliberately given by
another person, or operating through the beliefe of the

TiIK rSY(’II()i,*)(;Y OF THF Oi'Cri.T

f)4

patient liiins(‘lf, or tJirou^li the beliefs, prejiidiees, traditions
and sii])erstitions of the aye in vvhiefi he liv(‘s, may easily
ayyraA^at(‘ th(‘ hysterieal symptoms. Today, all siieh harmful
suyyestivi' intliienees are but a shadow of tlieir former selves,

Wlure fhere is naked siipiTstition and yross prejudiet,
tliere exists als<) an unlimited eapaeity for irrational Inlief
a very poh nt faetor in the* opf'ration of snyyi'slion. Duriny
the Middl(‘ Ayc'S, and in fact until the latter half i>f the nine-
ti‘enlh eentury, th(' minds of tlu^ masses w(‘re ste(‘ped in
prejudice and su))(Tstition. and these twin factors op(‘rat(‘d
disastrously u])on tlu* susceptible fiiind of tln^ hysteric, w^hose
eonse(]uent r<‘aelions merely s(Tved to eontirm the iynorani
prejudices of those around him.

These days the yreat majority of tJu* factors which con¬
tributed to the formation of extnane hysterical syiulrojTKvs
are absent. Life, in the VWst at least, is !iv(‘d on a far h’ss
arduous [ilane. and tlu* minds of civilised men are ^(‘Idom
gripped by riyid fanatical b(‘liefs aiid superstitions unlit by
the rays of reason. But in former times thes(^ factors resulted
in hyst(T’cal syndromevs of a severity virtually unknown
since the relatively^ recent development of medical
psychology.

The Western i)sychiatrist today may liave to deal witli
hysteria, oriyinatiny in subconscious mental conflict; but
it is a different brand of malady from that wliich has iU
path deepened and broadened by the enntinual pressure of
virulent and nuiUfieent suggestion. In demoniacal possession
we can see, from biblical times to the Middle Ay(vs and after,
a phenomenon of hyshTia which resulted IVom the reciprocal
play of popular superstition ami th(' ready beli(‘f of the
subject himself that demons existed and were ca])able of
taking possession of a man’s body. Any such irrational and
firmly held belief, inculcated since childhood, mad(‘ th(‘
medieval man or w^ornan subject to influen(*(‘s of suggestion
on a scale uni)arallcled under modern conditions.

It is (xtremely doubtful whether, in such (»ases, modern
psychiatric; mc;thods would have been very effective in
curing the patient. Yet there existed very (‘fleetivc methods
of curing during medieval times which, be it noted, also
depended on the operation of suggestion augmented through

tlir paticnfs cMpiicily Tor liinill(‘ss hvYwi', 'To the liysl<‘rical
and halliH'iiiat(‘(l witch or to thi* foaiiiiiij^ dcinoii-i)ossc’ssc(l
man, tlic ability of the [)ricst or inaninialx* ikon to cxorcisi*
Satar) and his minions was a cardinal fact of (‘xistiaira' kiif)\vu
since* infancy. The asf.oensliin{( r(‘snlls often achi(‘V(*d in
cxorcis!)! were* dm^ to nothin^^ more than tlie elTeet oF power¬
ful and readily assimilale el (‘ountcr-su{>‘^rcstion. It is < f i»T(‘at
int(‘resl. to note* that Jafu t himself, at tin* torn of the (*(‘iitnry.
was not above re'sortinj.^ to a brand of nu'dit val (*xore)sm to
cure a Jiysterical French peasant vvIk) sulV(‘r(‘d frojn halin'-
illations of demoniacal ])(»ssession.

Chapter Six
HYPNOTISM

1 HERE IS i\ ^rcat (l(‘al of cxaifiised thinking among the
general public* in rc*gar(l to the faets of hypnotism. To the*
uninformed hypnotism savours of “ mysterious powcTS of
the iniiul with more than a hint of the supernatural. In
actual fact, while our knowledge of hypnotism and suggestion
is still incomplete, our understanding is more than suflieient
to dispel any lingering beli(‘f in the operation of occult
powers. Yet hypnotic suggc'stion has b(‘i*n used I'or thou¬
sands of years and in many parts of the world today is still
used- as a powerful adjun(*l to the thaumatiirgist’s and
necromancer's re^pertoire ; and those* who use* hypnotism for
these ends are seldom any fr(*c*r from the delusion that the
elTeets tliey produce arc due to magicr than their credulous
and suggestible subjects.

Hypnotism w as known to the priests of the ancient religions
of the Near and Middle East, to the Egyptians, the l^ersian
magi, and to many esoteric cults of India. Anumgst the
credulous and superstitious people* of those days, for whom
the gods, spirits and magic possessed the same dcgr(*e of
reality as the objects and forces of the material world, the
effect of suggestion was infinitely more drastic than would
be the case today in civilised communities. Their total
acceptance of magic* as a fundamental reality, combined
with a simplicity and directness of outlook, ('nabl(*d any
form of suggestion to play havoc with the normal functioning
of the mental and emotional faculties. Allied, too, with
these factors was the emotion of fear aroused in the presence
of the occult, engendering even more effective conditions
for the induction of suggestion.

CC

Hypnotism

07

The whole* proVilein of hypnoiisvvv is boiiiid u}> with the
probh*m of suggestion jiiul the eff(‘ets produced by suggestion.
Hypnotism is, in fact, merely a particular method of inducing
an increased state* e)f suggestibility in the indiviehial. The
de*e*ply hypnotiscel subje^et can be made to experience all
kinels of elelusions ; he* e*an be e*e)mpe*llcd 1e) carry out the
me)st absurd and unrease>nal)le ae‘tie)ns ; he e*an be niaele
te) assume a totally differe^nt personality, te) remember
facts whose very existeiUH* he lias long forgotte*!!, to fall
into a rigid e*ataleptie* 1rane*e, or to be*e*ome insensible te>
])ain. If it is suggeste‘d to him thal he is the l)i‘vil, then,
owing to his hcightene^el aptituele for dramatie* impersonatiem
and his freeeleim from inhibiiiems, the subje*ct will act the
jjarl, leax'ing no de)ul)t that he tenipeirarily be*lievcs himse*lf
te) be ne)ne otlier than the Devil hiinsedf.

It is not elilficult to se*e how lupnotism e*an give rise* to
the* most extreme* e)ce*ult belie*fs. In former times the
h\'})notisi was ace*e*pted as the [)e)sscss()r e)f magical powe*rs
without question, and this traditie>n is liy ne) means e^xtinct
in PiUre)pe* anel the Unite'el Stales at the present day.

JanH*s Braid of Manchester first ee)ine*d the* term hNqme)tism
in ]8il. Before that elate it was usually r(*ferre*el to as
mesmerism e)r animal magnetism anel was re*pute*el to operate
by means of vital fluiels, magnetic currents e)r whatever eJse
entt*reel the* hyi)ne)tist’s heael. It was Jan Baptista van
Helinont, a seventeenth ecniurv Flemish physie*ian, who
first introduc*e*eI the idea e>f a fluiel e;alle*el animal magnetism
tlirenigh the media of whie*h the* actions e)f e)ther persons
eoulel be raelie^ally in(luene*e*el. Over a ee*ntury later i\Ie*smer
resuseitate^d the ne)tie)n, e*laiming it as his own disce^vt^ry.
Mesmer brought the whole subject e)f hypnotism into dis¬
repute* by liis wild claims and fraudulent prae*tie*es. It was
not until the latter half e)f the nineteenth century that serie}us
inve*stigatie)n into hypnotism was re*vivcd, partie*ularly
iinelcr the leadeTship e)f two Fre‘neh psychopathe)logists,
Hippe)lyte Bernheim at Nancy, and Jean Fhare*ot at the
SalpcH-rierc Hospital. The Salpe'triere Schoe)I considered
hypnosis to be a pathological state analogous to hysteria,
while Bernheim and the Nancy sc^hool explained it in te^rms
of suggestion. War ” was declared between the two schools
with little quarter given. Bernheim triumphed and his

f»S Tin: ok tiik Oic i lt

view is, ill ess(‘ne(‘, Il)(^ one ^eiuTally aee(‘|)te(l by eontenipo-
rury [isyeholo^y. IbU the Taet rt inains that, it is the hysteri-
eal patient who makes tin* Ixst hypnotie subjeet at h'ast
nn(l(‘r modern (‘ivilised eonditions, so that C’hareot's eon-
eliisions wen' b\ no means so wide of tlie mark as liis op-
j)onents wished to belie ve.

In tlie sphere of medicine hypnosis has ofte'n been able
to play a v(*rv imporlaiit ])art, partieularly in the cure or
alleviation of disabilities of hyste'rieal orison. Hysteria,
has often resulted in fumdional mutism, blindm.ss aiul
})aralysis. Numbers of such eases liave been direedly eiin'd
by li\ piloti(* su^^estion anti then' is no doubt Itiat many of
the traditional stories of miracles of the blind bein^
niadt* to see, fht* dumb to speak and th(‘ lame and halt to
walk had firm foundation in fact. The modt rii practice of
usin^» hypnotie su^j^estion in the cure or alleviation of
j)syeho^enie disabilities eomt's under th(' funeral ht'adiny
of psyehothtTapy, or, more speeilieally, hypnotherapy.

For information on the use of hypnosis in medicine tlur
rt'adt r is advised to turn to Chapter 12. The medical use of
hypnotic suggestion for eiiring patients of tludr psyehogenii*
ailments has serious drawhaeks and for that n'ason has not
spr(*ad into general praetiee. Hut liypnothera])ists have,
on (»eeasion, jirodueed tin* most amazing cures, a,nd among
th(‘ less advanced eommunities of tJu* world hypnoth(Tap(*utie
treatnu'nt ought ecTtainly to b(‘ used far more than it is.
In modern psyehotherajuutie (dinies hy])nosis, when used,
is gtiurally employed in eonjunctiou with otlu'r methods
of jisyehotlu'rapy. Tlioiigh the Iherapeutie effeets of
hypnotic suggestion an* often striking they are ajit to be
ejihenural, since the basic nervous hyperU'iisions whi(‘h
])rodue(* tlie symptoms are not removed.

Today in eivilis(d countries hypnotic* suggestion is used
for two different jiurposes : as a therapeutic agent and as a
form of (*nt(‘rtainment. Many authorities consider the
prc'seidation of hy]>notism on the stage as something un-
<lesirable, but there is no evidence that it has done any harm
and then* is little reason why it should among modern
audiences. The ridiculous actions of tlie hypnotised pcTSoii
on the stage can indeed be highly amusing, particularly
when the subject is an unsuspecting member of the audience.

llYI woriSM

(iO

niid oru* (Ios(‘ of hypnosis will do no orn* nny Inirin. On(‘
\an(l(*vill(‘ hypnotist nsrd to sn^^(‘st to his snl)j(*ct n
irKMnhiT of th(‘ iiudifiuM^ scdoctcd Jiftcr f(*w (*l(‘!n(‘ntary
tests for snseeptihility that slu* was two y(‘ars of at^u* and
j\ist hej^innin^* to walk. The laek of inhibitions and tin*
hei<;ht(*i^ed histrionic powers ofl(*n (‘n^ender(*fl by hypnosis
guaranteed the success of ftiis part of the sliow ; it was (‘liiclly
the expression on the adult's fact* during lu‘r inia^in(*d [>(‘riod
of extremt* infancy which ainusc^d tin* andicnc(‘.

livsleria may be rc^ard(‘(l, for purposes of comparison,
as a stat(* of Jii^h su^^(‘stibility accompanied by a tendency
towards nuMital dissociation. Many vvrit(*rs claim that the
chief (liff(‘r(*ne(“ b<‘tw(‘en hyst(‘ria and liypnosis in tliis res[)(*ct
li(*s in the fact that tin* ene(‘ts or symptoms not(‘d in hyst(‘ria.
an* due to a pathological stati* of mind, whih* in hypnosis
more or less tiie same ( llects are produced, artilicially as it
wa re, by a speeilie leeliniipie.

It is of iniportance to renn^mber t hat in civilisial eommuni-
ties, where lear, uncritical (*r(‘dulity or abj(‘(‘t superstition
an* normally lacking in (*\(*rvday lift*, the mon* striking
eHec'ts of hypnosis are to be found inainly with individuals
already subject to a considerable <lecre(‘ of hysteria. TiKh r
modern conditions, therefonx it ofl(‘n be<‘omes probl(‘malical
wliether or not to re^nird d(‘ep hy[)nosis as an artifi(*ial
increase in aln'ady (*xistin^ hysterical tendencies. A number
of writers have \n fact taken this vi(‘w. With normal sub¬
jects, howev(*r, the hypnotic state may be re^ard(*d men ly
as an increase artificially induced in tlu* sidyject's natural
su^’-^est ihility.

Th(‘ probh'ins of hysb ria. and su^^cstion cannot be di-
vor(*(‘d from those pertaininjj^ to hy])notism ; all three*
phenoi!i(‘na an* inextricably bound u|) one with tin* oth(‘r,
and it is diilicult to draw the dividing lint* b(*twt‘(*n any of
them.

A compl(*te explanation of tlu* |)sycholo^y of hy|)notism is
not ytt fortheomin<r. Nor is tlit rt* likely to b(* one befort!
psycholo^>ists havt* fully understootl all tlu* ])h(*nomena of
su^^estion. Once the hitti*r have bt*en successfully explained,
it will almost et*rtaiidy bt* found that tlu* phenonu‘non of
hy[)notism is m(‘r(‘ly a special ease of the o(‘iua*al psycho¬
logical probl(*in of su^^estion. Then* is eonsidi rable <*on-

70

ThK PSYCIlOf.OCJY OF TllK OcCVLT

fusion of ideas on th(‘ subject of hypnotism amongst
psychologists theniscl\'(‘S. The reason for this is that many
experiments in hypnotism have, until quite r(‘cently, been
so conducted as to jjroduee reactions from suggestible or
hysterical patients which conformed to the experimenter’s
prei‘onc(aved ideas on the subject.

Hypnotism and its JRklation to Slekp

The term “ liypnosis ” (sleep) is a complete niisiionuT.
Sleep can be in(lu(‘ed by suggestion, likewise a drowsy,
lethargic staU*. Howcvtt^ these stat(‘s art* not elTeets e>f
“ hypnotism ” but of suggestion, and the “ hypnotised ”
subject may rtTiiain thoroughly wide awake unless sugges¬
tions of slee]) or dro>vsiness are directly givTii, or unless tin;
subje(*t- througli his reatling on the subje(*t -consciously
connects hypnotism with sleep ami <lrowsiness ; in the latti*r
case a process of autosuggestion occurs.

Numbers of laboratory ex])criments' have been carried out
which })rove (‘on(*lusivc]y tliat the hypnotic state itself is not
allied to sleep. For example, subj(‘ets in a state of deep
hypnosis give virtually the saim* pat(*lla r(*Hex action or
“ knee-jerk ” as in tlicir normal state, whereas it is absent in
sleep. *

Drow\siness and hdhargy in hypnosis arc due to tiu* ten¬
dency of the hypnotiseci subject to fall into actual sleep.
This in turn may be due to tlirect suggestion, expectation or
autosuggestion, fatigue, or the relaxed ])osition which the
subject is generally expected to adopt at the beginning of a
session, (hamine deep sleep can be induc(*d by suggestion,
and this must be clearly understood. But before sleeping
subjects are abh* to carry on with the hypnotic ex|:)criment,
they have first to be awaki‘ned. (Generally the operator’s
voice* is sufficient for this and the subjecd, wakes, not to his
normal state, but still susceptible to the operator’s sugges¬
tions.

' See Hull, C’. L,, Hfptosis andSu^estibility, N. Y. 1 iKJ.T,

* See Bass., M. .1., Differentiation of the Hypnotic Trance from Normal
Sleep, J. Kxp. Psychol., 14, pp. 382-899, 1931.

1Iy]»not1vSm and its Rklation to Sm:i:p

71

Wliilc (lr()wsin(‘ss, l(‘thar^y aiui sl(*(‘j) iiuiy l)(‘ j'ikIikthI
(lircetly by sn^^vstioiu or accidcutally owin^ to tlu* staU* of
relaxation adopted at the beginning of the session; the hyp-
noti(‘ state as sneh is to be rigidly distinguished from sle(‘p as
Roslroem first jmnaMl in 1025/ In extreme r(*laxati(ni the
knee jerk and other ndlexes are notieeably diminished, but
this is not in itself peeuli.ar to states of relaxation indneed by
liypnosis. Hypnotism is, in faet, no more than the irtduclion
of a state of abnormal sufi^estibUiti/ by certain zvell defined
methods t(*ehniea]ly known as hypnogenie, whieh w'ill be
des(rribed sliortly.

Hypnotiii pluaiomena can be induced only in people who
are already suggestible !)>• naturi' or vvlio an^ in an unusually
suggestible state of mind. Indueing an unusually suggest¬
ible stal(‘ of mind is part of the hvpnotisist's eraft. If we
wish to tind the (‘xplanation of the effeets obtained by the
use of hypnotism, we must s(‘ek it in tlie psychology of
suggiistion a great. d(‘al of whieh is still a closed book to us.

Most of the prominent psyeliopathologists wdio hav(t
r<‘gularly made use of liypnotism in the course of their pro-
ftjssional duties possess only the most ambiguous ideas on the
theory of tlie subje(‘t. Much of the dillieulty apjx'ars to lie
in the faet that, often enough, evidence of dissociation and
trance states of eonseiousness hav(‘ b(‘cn induced, cither
unwittingly or through faulty suggestion on the part of the
operator. Such results as these are due to th(' fa(d that very
many of the hypnotist’s sid)jeets in th(‘ past have l)(‘<*n
hyst(‘rieal, wdth consequent tendeneic s to dissociation which
the hypnotist has unwittingly increased through the use of
suggestion. The misinterpretation of thes(‘ and similar
observations, (‘.g. tlu' tcaideney to drow'sin(‘ss or sl(H*p, has led
to confusions in the literature of hypnotism without parallel
in any other branch of modern ])syeliology.

(Jenerally wlnai the operator wishes to hypnotise a subject
he will first induce a drowsy lethargic state' by a combiiu'd
nu'thod of relaxat ion and suggestions of slec'p th(' hypnogenic
UK'thod. If this is done successfully the subject is then
considered hypnotised. Actually wuth numbers of subjects

® B«>estroeiii, A., AbderhaUlvn\s Uandlnich dvr hiotighchvn Arbeitsmetho-
den, Abl. (», Teil C, Heft 5, ^ Ilypnost*,” p. 2aI.

TuK PsYC lUJl.OGY OF THK OcVITLT

lluT(‘ is IK) need to go through this first st('p at all in order to
iiidncF abnormal suggestibility. Waking ” suggestion can
prove just as effective. One of the reasons why the hyp-
nogenie methml is so ell’eetive is because traditionally this is
what the subjecit expects.

Many opcTators have referred to their ability to achieve
eHeets similar to hyjinosis by ‘‘ Waking suggestion.” This
simply means that they have oniilted the traditional first
steps of suggesting drowsim'ss or sleep. The fact is tliat the
moment tlu' subject begins to feed drowsy at the o])erat()r\s
syf^^rstioN he has already become liyj)notis(‘d,” i.e. rendcTcd
abnormally suggestible.

Tliere are a variety of methods of inducing a state of
hypnosis or abnormal suggestibility. It does not depend on
any peculiar faculty e)f the* operator. I'he majority of [leople
can b(‘ trained as hypnotists if they wish to be, but the most
sne(*essful are those whose ])(Tsonality naturally impr(*sses
oIIkts. “ Will-power ” has nothing to do with the ability to
hyjinolise sueeessfully. First impressions, however, arc
important. The subject should believe in the ability of the
operator to liypnotise him. If this belief is absent, the
operator should try and inculcate it as a j)reliminary. (ien-
i rally nothing mon* than an elbeient masterfvd “ beside-
mamu'r ” is rcHpiired. Provided his technique is correct,
a man with a re latively weak will should havT no dilliculty in
hy pnotising a man of dominant will power. It is in fact the
shallow tyi)e of individual with an unstable and somewhat
merenrial temperament who is more dillieult than most to
hypnotise.

A tyj)ieal method of inducing hypnosis follow^s along
tli<‘se lin(*s : The* subj(*et, must first agree to co-operate^
is j)lae(‘d in an armchair or couch and ordered to relax
eomph tely. The* operator holds up a bright object upon
which tlu‘ sul)j(*et has to fix his gaze (the “ fascination
method”). The o|)erat()r talks firmly and eonvinoingly tx>
his subjee^t, using a (juiet and somewhat monotonous tone
of voice, suggesting to him drow\sincss, hcavim^ss of the
eyelids, obscurity of vision, heaviness of limbs, blankness of
mind, fatigue and all the various apjmrteuanees of sleep.
Th<‘ bright object will descend gradually until the lids of the
ey(‘s, uneonseiously following its movement, arc* nearly

Hypnotism and its Kki.ation to Sij^kp

73

closed. Soii)(‘iinH‘s tlic oj>crator strokes the limbs of the
s\il)je(*1. The mon(»tonovis How of words reiteratiiifi; the
c>nconiiiif>; of sleep, the slrain on the eyes, th(* relaxed position
of the inusel<‘s- all te nd to induce* a h(*aviiKSs in the* eye‘lids
and limbs anel an ine*re*asin^ relne tanee te> move* them, until
the su[)ie*et sueldeiilx' finds that he* cannot me)ve* them (e veai
when e)iallenoe*d} if the* operator suyyests to him that lie
is unable to do so. \Vlu‘n tliis eleyre*e of suy^est i])ility is
reae*hed, the* ope rator is then able te> put the snhjeet's limbs
inte) any peisition he* wishe*s anet jjive* the eennmand tliat tlm
subje*e*t's limlis remain fixe‘d in the* j)ositie>n chosen. The
subjee*t can ne) longer move* them. If the subje*et is now
‘‘ awake*neel/' l>y tiu* simple e xpeebe nt e>f te lling* liim to wake
up, he will usually be* able* to re*membe‘r his expe*rienee^s
unle‘ss it is spe‘eitieally snj|j[^e*ste*d to Www tiiat he will remeanbeT
neithin^f “ e)n awakening," in whiedi e*ase it dej)e‘nels e)n th(5
psyeholoyieal e*onslitution of tlie* sul)jee‘t vvlu*ther lie* will
Ik* able* to re‘eall his h\ |)Jioti<* ex[)erie*ne‘e*s or not. In ek*e!»cr
states of }iypne»sis than the* e)ne* just eleseribed, e‘onu)lete
feirgetfnlness, or amnesia. e*aii e>rte*n be* ineluee‘d if de\sir(‘d.

The* ^reat value e)f the* hy])ue>^e*nie me*thoel of ineT(*asin^
su^^^restibility (hypimsis) is that a re‘lax(‘el elreiwsy state reibs
the subje’ct e)f me*ntal energy, lulls liis e*ritie*al faculties and
makes liim elisiueline*d to display initiative* of his own. This
is by no means the* eomplete explanatieun but the ellieaev e)f
drowsine*ss as an aiel te) ine*?'e*asin^ su^^^stibility is pro\'eei by
the* fact that seime subj(*e*ts wlie) are e)the*rwise* re fractory to
j)syeholo^de*al me*thoets of inducing su^^a‘stil)ility are: e asily
rende*re*el sii^^e‘slible* by a meKleTate de)se of such drills as
se)elium amvtal <»r evipan or thie)pe*ulone aelministereal
intrave*nously. llypueitism, let it be repeateel, is simply the
indiK'tion ed'a state e>f abneinual su]^jL>‘estibility by hy]>uogenie
methods. Avvake*nin<»- from hypnosis " nu*aiis ne>thing
mem* than re*ee)very freim the* su^fi[e*stible state*.

By no means all people are reaelily hypnotisable. altheiuf^di
the* maje>rity e>r normal pe*oplc* e*an be* hypnotised to a notie*(*-
able de*groe*. In Kure)pe anel Ame*riea it is estimate*el that
between ten and twenty per cent eif the normal population
can be maele te) reach the deepe‘r e>r “ somnambulie* stages
by expert hypne)tists. It may be ne)ted in j)assin«T that W’he*n
a patiemt is rceale*itrant te) hypimtherape utie treatnu*nt tJie

74

Tme 1\sy( iioi.dOY OF THE ()('c ri/r

strain and monotony and fatigue of trying to induee Iiypnosis
has been known to result in the optTator being hypuotiscul
instead ! GeniTally, it is tlie strong-minded pe rson those!
whe) ean ee)ne*entrate em a single iele'a without elislraedion - -
whe) are* e*asie*st le> ]iyj)ne)iise. The bntler(ly-minele*d type* e)f
person, unle*ss lie l)e a hyste*rie, is not se) easily subject to
hyi)nosis. Again, the)sc with no e*due*atie>n. or a. ])oe)r one, arc
ge*ne‘ral1y me)rc e‘asily liyj)ne>tise el than tlic \vcll-e*elucate*el;
the* latt(‘r j)Osse*ss a be‘tte*r eTitie*al fa(*nlty a net are* not so
susce‘ptiblc to the influe‘ne‘e‘ e»r ide*as emanating from othe'rs.
Generally spe‘aking, subie*ets in stales e)! fatigue*, or after a
peTiod e>f strain, are* far me)r<* e‘asily Jiy])notise‘el than those
who are* fre‘sli and alert. The* insane* (‘an very seldom l)e
hypnotise*d.

Tin* term hy])nosis is unfe>rtiuuite. Hut it is dillie'idt to
ave)id using it in \'ie‘w eif its familiarity. Sine*e it is te) be
re*taine*d, we will eleline it simply as a particular methe)el
whe*re*by sugge‘stibility is ineluee*el in a subje*et - the method
whiedi geaie raily ee)inm(*ne‘e*s with re‘laxatie>n aee*e>mj)anieel by
suggestions e)f elre)wsine*ss anel sle*ep, bi primitive* soe*ietie*s
the m(‘di(*ine-man elisjanses with sueli me*lhe>els. He* ean
ineluce e*xtre‘me‘ state's e»f sugge*stibility without Ihe'in.

The hyj)ne)genie* methoel of inelueing abne)rmal suggesti-
))ility is j)rol)ably the na^sl enee*tive in me>ele*rn se)eie*ty.
lJj)fe)rlunately, a serie)us study of the efleeds of suggestion
in primitive e*e)mmunitie*s has ye*t te) })e‘ unde*rlake*n ; but it
is ])e)ssible* to state* with e*e*rtaintv tJiat among primitive
ee)mmunitie*s the* hyj>ne)ge*nie* niethexl of inve)lving suggesti-
})ilily, the)ugh prae*tise*el ame)ngst e*ertain esoterie* cults of the
Kast, has ru) maje)r aelvantage*s e)ver waking ” suggestion.

Waking ” sugge*stie)n, |)re‘e*e*ele*el by pre*limi»iarie*s elesigFH*el to
strike at the re)e)ls e)f the subje*e‘t’s eme)tie)ns anel beliefs, e^an
operate* powerfully in primitive* societies, wdtheiut the* sub-
je*e*t's eo-operation and even against his will -a feat which all
Kure)pean anel American hvpnedists finel impe)ssil)le* in their
own e'ountries.

Yet- the* elleets attaine*el by use of hvj)notie* suggestion are!
often amazing. Fe)r e*XHinple, Jiypnotic slecj) can Ik* so (le*ep
that major surgical ope*rations have be*en e*arried out without
the j)aticnt fe*eling the Ic'ast pain.' Analgesia, e)r tJie
inability to fe*e*l pain, can also be induceel locally, in the

I IV PN( )T1C S( >MNA M MI 1 1 .1SM

75

thumb or tho leg for (^xamplo, at the suggestion of the
operator while the patient remains fully eonseious. The
same ph(‘nomena is often observable in hysteria ; (‘enturies
ago hysterieal analgc^sie patehes were eonsider(‘(l the work of
the devil and the unfortunate person was usually bund as a
witch after gross torturi^s designed to obtain a “ confession
of traflieking with the prine(‘ of darkness.

Suggestion in primitive society can b(‘ implanted with
enormous (dfeet. The* combination of eoinpleti' lulief in
magic and in the j)Owers of the witchdoctor, the large element
of fear, the accumulative* elhct of recipnx'al suggestion
always present among a er(»wd, the state of (‘xciteim'id and
intense* expectation- all o|K‘ratc to induce a state of extreme
suggestibility. Stories of natives dying after being eurs(*d by
a witchdoctor a phenomenon now called thaHatomcmia by
some anthroj)ologists- arc* no product of the explorer's or
missionary’s imagination ; it is ind(*(*d a fa(*t that an idea
can so powerfully g(*t a hold on the mind of primitive* man
that it can result in death within a few^ days. He b<*lievL*s
that he will die and die* he do(*s -unless his fri(‘nds manage
to persuade the witchdoctor to lift ” the curse, wh(*reupon
he will inimediat(*ly recover on having the news brought to
his notice. Thanatomania (anthropological) serv(*s to illus¬
trate the enormous force of suggestion when conditions an*
favourable for it.

HYPN()’i’ISoMNAMMOIJSM

Tlie d(*cpcst stages of hypnosis (i.e. an ad\'ancc*d stage* of
suggestibility brought about by hy})nogenie methods) is still
generally r(*ferred to as the somnambulic stage*.*' The
somnaml)ulic* stage is characterised by the ability of the
operator to make* the hypnotised subject carry out any
series of actions he suggests, however incongruous or ir¬
rational. Suggested visual hallucinations will produce
reactions whicli to the inexj)erienced eye appear as if the
subject can actually s(?e the objects or scenes suggested.
Suggest(‘d audiiory hallucinations produce like reactions, and
the subject, can even be made to carry on conversations with
an invisible person.

Tin: PsYC’iioi.cxiY or thk Occui/r

7 (\

It is oxtmiiely doubtful whotlier tiu* modern eivilis(‘(l
iiulividnal acluully exj)erienees luillucinaiorv sense impres¬
sions uiuler hypnolie suggestion ; h(‘ is more likely to be
aiding a j)art, though all the time lie may be undiT the de¬
lusion that hi* liears or sees the persons or objects suggested.
It is probable, however, that numbers of hysterical subjects
do experience hallueinatious analogous to those experienced
by crystal gazers.

Hypnotic somnambulism, in wJiieh tin* subject carries out
a serii s of ai'tions at the command of the operator, possesses
an interesting parallel witli a form oi‘ insanity known as
CGtatoniv sclnzophrvnki. The catatonii* schizophrenic fre-
(juently exhibits the plu'uonemou of '' command auto¬
matism " iv\ which the \)ati(*nt slavishly obeys every command
giv(‘n to him. Thi'rt* is no rap]>ort obser\aV>\e in svicU
cases. It is possible that in thi* (*ase of the hysterical
subji'ct hypnotic somnambulism is relat(‘d to the phenomenon
of (*atatonie command automatism. In (*(‘rtain cases of
catatonii* sehizophenia tht* patient may exhibit a state of
catalepsy similar to that (*ngen(U*red in many hypnotised
subjects, 'fhe s(‘hiz()phrenie may also lx* subject to siaisory
halhi(*inalions. The conclusion to lie drawn, albeit tenta¬
tively. is that the mi ntal states of s(*hizophreni(*s and certain
hyjmotiscd hysterics are not disimilar. If this is true, th(*ri
In pnosis can effect d(*e})er alterations in the psychology of
the hysterical individual than is generally admitted. This
conclusion should. liowi'Ver, Ik* aec(*j)te(l with reserve until
further information is forthcoming.

JIy[)notic somnambulism is a fiTHi wliich possesses certain
ambiguities. There an*, in all likelihood, two types of
liypnotic "‘somnambulism'’: one, fhat to which normal
but suggcstibli* individuals may attain and in wliich the
riaetions of the hypnotisi'd subjc(*t are not so v(‘rv dilferent
from a subjeei who is putting on an act; two, that to which
tlie latent or overt hysteric often attains, in w'hi(*li natural
tendeneiis to delusion or dissociation are inl(*nsiji(‘d. pro¬
ducing what may bi* called a stati* of genuine trance, border¬
line eases are, naturally, freijuently found. In the first typo
the sul)j(‘et merely obeys the eonimands or suggi'stions of the
ojKTator ; and evi'n when amnesia is suggested tlie conse¬
quent loss of memory freipientiv appears to be an apparent

H Y PN ()TI (’ S( )MN A M lU: I A SM

OIK' only, rcsultin^r from the desire 1o obey the ojuTator
i.e. the subjeet eontinues to maintain, perhaps deceivinj^
himself, that he eannot remember while still retaining the
ability to do so. On the other hand, the hysterical type* of
subjeet is often genuinely unable to recall the incidents
oeeurrinjT in his somnambulic* state unless speeilieally
ordered to do so by the operator. It is only in these* latter
eases that the term somnambulism " can be applied with
any juslitieation. It is a fact that highly liysterieal subj(‘ets
may, when Jiypnotised, reach a state* of consciousness n(‘arly
identical to that of t he sleep-walker.

With both normal and hysterical individuals the proc'celure
of attaining to the so-(*alled somnambulic state is the same.
The operator makes the subject relax and m()n()tonously
repeats all the* appurte‘nane*es of sleep. The operator tlu*n
orders him to o{)e*n his eye*s and carries out some minor
(*xperime*nts to test the state of suggestibility to whie*h the
subjeet has attaine*d. If the re*ejuire*(i state of sugge*slibility
has been induced, the subjec*t is now capable of jK'rforming
all the actions usual in his normal waking state and will
answeir epjcstions readily ; but he reniains virtually witliout
a will of his own. He obe'ys the operator proviei(*d the latte*r
does not try to make him say or do things which are gen¬
uinely abhorrent to him. If, for example, the* subjeet is told
to pour icy water over himself he woulel be likely to come* out
of the hypnotic trance* or even to break into an outburst of
hysterical w(*eping. But. if the subjee*t did not know what
the c’ontaincr hedd and it was suggested to him that it was
full of rose-petals, for examjde, there wendd be no diflie'ulty in
persuading him to drench liimself!

Trance states of e‘onseiousne*ss, such as those whie*h are
found in hypnotised subjects tending to hysteria and are
eliaraederised by genuine dissociation, have only too e)fte*n in
the past been regarded as a specific stage of deep hypnosis.
This is not the ease ; the hypnotic trance can be attribuf e el to
the effects of suggestion upon a mind already possessing a
tendency to trance states. The hypnogenie rnethod of
increasing a subject’s suggestibility has no direct connection
with the emergence of a state of trance. If the right tech¬
nique is used, “ waking ” suggestion is often efficacious in

7S

Tin: PsYC'iiorxKiY or nii: Ocrn/r

ii\d\u*n\g tri\uoe statics \\\ swhji'ets who are prone io hysUrical
flissoeintioii.

The pscudo-soinnainbulisiii of the !ioii-h\ sterieal subject
is liir^rt ly explaiiH'd l)v th(‘ total hick of self-eonseious and
other inhibitive factors brou^^flit about by hypnosis. His
histrionic powers an* therel)y inereas(*d far beyond what he is
eaf)abl(‘ of in Jiis normal state. Th(* pathological hysteric
oflci^ presents the same temh'ucy, the main diiV(‘renee being
that tilt* hysterical j)atient has an underlying motive* in¬
spiring his j)(*rformane(*. while the histrionic exhibition of the
normal liypnotist*d subject is brought about by tlu* elfeets of
suggestion.

HvPNOTK* IlATJa ( rXATTONS

Amongst jiraetitioners of the occult the induction of
delusions and even hallucinations, by sugg(*stion, lias played
a great part. The ancient Kgyptian niagi(*iairs stock trick of
turning staves into s(‘rp(‘n1s and similar wondcTS an* all
attributable to d(*lusions or visual hallucinations produc(*d by
the effects of suggestion. In more superstitious and cr(*du-
lous ag(*s, as iii priniitiv(* soci(*ties of today, extr(*mc states of
suggestibility were easily (*ngen(kT(*d, and there is little
reason to doubt that under the twin influences of (*motion
and suggestion a state of hysteria was produced which may
have resulted in actual sensory hallucinations. Kven today
the normal western individual who has been hypnotised can
be made to believe that h(* s(*cs persons, objects or events in
limitless variety, however incongruous or fantastic^.

It is extrem(*ly doubtful wh(*ther the normal European or
American subject can be made to experience, at the sugges¬
tion of the hypnotist, a genuine s<aisory hallucination, i.e. an
(*xperience of the actual sensation of seeing or hearing persons
and objects which are not present. Many sudi hypnotised
subjects can undoubtedly be made to believe that they have
experienced such sensations, and all “somnambulic” subjects
can be made to act as if they were experiencing th(*m ; the
induction of mch pseudo-hallucinations is a common hypnotic
experiment. Whatever the answer to the problem may be,

11Y PNOTIC Ha I JJTCINATTONS

79

the hiet remains tliat hypiiotie" sufTfrestioii ean produee, if
not geiuiiiK‘ sensory hallueinations, at least the pseuclo-
hallneinations as described above, and it is evident that
th(* bearing of both 0 !i the psychology of occultism is of
equal importance.

Tlu* j)ower of suggestion can undoubtedly produce genuine
sensory hallucinations in hysterics who are occasionally
subject to them. Likewise, when intense psychological
factors such as fear or hysterical frenzy are involved, all the
evidence j>oints to the fact that suggestion or intense ex¬
pectation can result in the subject expcricn(*ing sensory
hallucinations. Sensory illusions, it need not be emphasised,
are (‘asily induced by waking ” suggestion when the sub¬
ject is under emotional stress. In primitive communities,
how(‘ver, then' seems little doubt that powerful suggestion
or expectation can result in genuine sensory hallucinations—
or at least subjective optical and auditory illusions of
suHicient intensity as to render th(‘ distinctioi^ of little
practica I signiticaiice.

Post-Hypnotk’ Suggestiox

Some of th(‘ most interesting examples of sugge^sted
delusion and pseudo-hallucination ar(‘ to be found in

post-hyj)notie suggestion”. The subject, while in a state
of hypnosis, is commanded to carry out some particular
action after he has been “ awakened”. The suggestion is
forcefully conveyed to him that he will remember nothing of
the command. He is then “ awakened ” and at the correct
time' proceeds to carry out the* reciuired action -without
knowing why he does it. If, despite the sugg(‘sted amnesia,
h(‘ realises wdth his conscious mind that he lias been ordcTed
to do it h(‘ will be able to resist the impulse to obey ; other¬
wise he usually feels no need to resist and will make more or
less rational excuses to account for his action, how^ever odd
it might appear to others present. For examiile, if the sub¬
ject has been ordered to open the window on a very cold day
exactly ten minutes after having apparently recovered from
his suggestible state, he will excuse his action by saying,

so Thk PsvnioiAK.Y OK THK Ocx’Ui/r

“ it’s very close in here ; I'll open the window n niinnlr", or
something similar. He will aeeount for his actions hy a.
proe(\ss of rationalisation, i.e. })rodiieii 4 T apparently logical
reasons to justify irrational or impulsive actions.

Post-hypnotic hallwinations, either real or “ pseudo”,
are of relatively ran^ occurrenct^. But anion^ the ultra-
suggestible i)ruuitive })eoples of Africa or Asia this verdict
is not lik(*ly to ajiply. "‘Delayed” sugg(‘stion was one of
the tricks of the oriental magician. The old soothsayer who
granteci the wisli of tureaved peasants by causing dead
relative's to a])pcar and vww s})eak with lliem "" at the* mid¬
night hour ' relied on tliis form of suggestion.

As an e'xamplc of probable pseudei-halliu'ination or delusit>n
of the ]>ost-livpnotic variety we may cite the amusing case of
the practise'd hypnedic e‘X])eriment(T who hypnotise'd a very
susceptiVde subjert and told him that he would l)e‘ swimnung
in a swimming-pool within seven minutes. Amnesia was
suggested and the subject was immediately awakened”.
Precisely at the time indicate*d the subj(‘ct took a header on
to the floor and started swimming vigorously, lirst side-
stroke, then a bn'asi-stroke, and finally kicking along the'
floor on his back, loudly calling to his frie'uds by name.

There is often a struggle' in the niinel e)f the subject wiieii
the time arrives te) carry out the elclave^el amnesic suggestion.
Being to all intents and purpose's, fully in e'e)r7miand e>f all
his faculties, he may bc'gin to fe'e! re*stless and eme'asy anel
generally be'ce)mcs aware e)f some compulsie)n to ae-tion fe)r
which he cannot ae*eount. Sometime'S he fe'cls he wants to do
something anel gets no peae'c of mind till the' action has been
f'arried enit. ()n being rehyjmotised, he)wever, or often by
verbal sugge'stion ale)ne without hypnotic preliminaries, he
can be macle to recall the e*vents which toe)k plae'e' while he
was hypne)tiseel, and the impulse* to carry e)ut the action
the'reupon fade's away.

Post-hypnotic (e)r elelayeei aniiiesic) suggestie>n may seem
like something e)ut e)f a fairy tale to those who are unac-
ejuainte'd with the subjee*t It might well be open to suspicion
of fraud or mere histrionics, were? it not that post-hypnotic
amnesia is one of the two most thoroughly established
phenomena pertaining to hypnotie* suggestion.

l’<)ST-Ilv!*X()Tic Su(;(;Ksri(>N

SI

All «T(‘iicr;iiis(‘(I (ic'scTiplions ()f‘ tlu* various phcnoinciia
prociuced l)y hyj)n(>1i(‘ ion i\rv nt l>i‘st ojvly rou^li

gui(l/‘s to wlint lias coniinonly \)ccu observed. Kxeeplions
lo the r))le are ])rol)id)ly nuive nun\(Tous than the rules
th(‘inselves, lor ihr mictions of hypnotised subjects vary
enormously aceordin^ to the ideas, theories and /nreoneeptions^
not only of the subjects themselves, but of the operators, 'rii(‘
latter may (‘onvey their idtas indin^etly by uneonseious
sui>:<^^(‘stinn : by l}u‘ir atlitiidi*. by h'adirj*^ (|Nestinns, by the
(•(uiditious ot the exjH rimeiifs and so <)n. TJu* subject is apt
to react according to how he (‘onseiously or subconstaoiisly
interprets these.

'Hie (‘Xprission to iiwake iVom hypnosis ' is a \cry
common one. Tnless, liowever. the hypnotised subject has
actually fallen asl(‘(‘p. or Jias l)ec‘n jnit into a stat(‘ oi* sl(*(‘p or
<lrowsin<‘ss by the ojKTator's suijf^est.ioris, the (‘\pr(\ssion may
also b(‘ a very misleadin^^ one. Drowsiness and sleep arc
ycauTally associated with the hypnotic stat(‘ because the*
uKdhod of inducin^f tlu‘ stale of abnf»rmal su^r^estibility is
primarily a hvpno^enic one. Once the recpiisite dcs^ec^ of
su|j[pestibility has becai attained, hovvt'ver. the' liypnolised
subject can be roused from his drowsiiiess to a state of
alertriess, while still remaining amenable to the suggestions
of the operator i.e. while still " livpnotised'’.

It is (*ommonly the praedice of liypnotie operators to
sugg(‘st sl(‘(‘p before returning the subject to his normal
state. The (*ommand to Avake up is then appropriab*.
Hut the subject can easily be brought out of his suggestible
or ‘‘ hypnotic ” state witliout the use of this eonvcait ion. Jn
such instances the operator's command to wake up " is
then seen to be little more than a conventional signal wlii(‘h
conveys to the subject that he is no longer susc(‘ptible to the
operator's influence and is free to act normally.

In post-hypnoti(* suggestion -usually confined to hystiTical
subjects with a noticeable tendency to dissociation -the
subject, remains in a. state of sugg(‘stibilitv. The command
to “ wake up ” does not free the subject from liis susc(‘[)ti-
bility to the operator's suggestions. He has the suggestion
made to him explicitly or by implication, that he is to carry
out a certain action at a certain time, that he is to forget that
any suggestion has been made, and that he is otherwise to

82

The PsYciioixKiY of the Occui/r

carry on as usual (implied by the command to “ wake up ”).
In sueeessfiil post-hypnotie experiments this is precisely what
the subject docs. Normally, the subject instinctively as¬
sociates the command to wake up with the idea that he
is no longer susceptible to the suggestions of the opiTator.
In post-hypnotie experiments, how(‘ver, the association of
ideas no longer operates because the subjc'ct is still aware
that the operator wants him to carry out certain actions.
On th(* command to ‘‘ wake up ” the suggested amnesia
intervenes ; the subject is no longer able to recall the in¬
cidents which took place before the command to “ wake up ”
and his awareness of the ojxTator’s previous sugg(‘stions
likewise passes out of his consciousness.

Hypnosis and the SuhconscioisS Estimation of Time

Inteuvals

In dealing with post-hypnotic suggestion we come across a
surprising tiling : the appanait ability of some hypnotised
subjects to estimate accurately the jiassage of time. Numer¬
ous experinuTits have been condiKdcd on the subconscious
faculty of time estimation. For example, a hypnotised
hysterical subject may be commanded to carry out an action
seven days, three hours and fifteen minutes after being
awakened. Such a time interval has been giv^n in minutes,
or even seconds —(316,500 to be precise. The subject is
then given the suggestion that he will forget the command
and then is “ awakened.” Astonishingly a(;curate successes
have been achieved by these methods though not nt^arly so
many as have been reported. The subject subconsciously
estimates the time to elapse before executing tlu' recpiired
action, sometimes being only a minute or two over a period of
days. N(‘edless to say, unless a tendency to hysterical
dissociation is observable, the estimation of time intervals
should not be assumed to be “ subconscious”.

Time estimation may possibly be an atavistic function.
During Pavlov’s experiments in conditioned reflexes the
repeated reactions of one of his dogs indicated that the
animal was able to distinguish without dillieulty when a
metronome was beating at 100 beats to the minute and when

SuHC'ONsriotrs Estimation of Time Intervals 83

it was boating at only IMi. It has boon established that bees
are nt)nnally able to estinuite time (and distance and angle)
with surprising accuracy.

It was oV>served in the discussion of auto-suggestion that
many people* are able to wake uj) at a sp(*cified time in the
early morning simply by telling themselv’esto wTike up
at the time reejuired. Th(*y awake often at the veTV minute
stipulated. Such an estimation of time is imj)ossible to them
in their waking state. It would appear that the subconscious
mind is able to use this faculty mainly when it is unhampered
by the distractions forced upon it during full consciousness.

“ 11ai*i»ort AND Negative IlALLrc iNATioNs

A great deal is heard in popular literature of hypnotism
concerning the phenomenon of “ rapport.’’ TIu re is nothing
peculiarly incomprehensible about this. It is a fact that the
liypnotised subject generally remains in touch wdth the
operator only is en rapport with him. as it w^as once termed.
In extreme cases of “ rapport ” the subject appears to hear
nothing at all except the commands of the hypnotist. A
pistol shot, or the shouted commands of bysta?iders, may
have little or no effect on hyn ; but he w ill still react to and
obey th(* barely audible whisper of the operator. This state
of affairs, however, is very easily countered by suggestion
from the operator. The fact that rapport ” can be so
easily countered by suggestion shows that it is itself a
product of suggestion.

This fact robs “ rapport ” of all the mystery which, a
century ago, was attached to it by all w^ho investigated the
problem. Ra[)port ” at that time was thought to be due
to some mystical relationship between the mind of the
operator and that of the hypnotised subject. The early
riH'smerisls dinned into their suVyects, who felt for them an
almost superstitious awe, that it was their own peculiar
“ magnctick ” powers which produced the mesmeric effects
—effects which today we regard as due solely to suggestion.
The patients, under this powerful form of suggestion, only
reacted to the commands of those in whom they had been led

84

Tuk Psycii<)1i(h;y of the Occn/r

to boliovc the ‘‘ niaguetisiu resided. When all s\ieh
theori(‘s as aninial ina^netisin and inapnetie ttuids ”
passed into limbo, the traditional belit'l* in the sj>e(*ial powers
of hypnotie operators still persisted in eertain f)syehothera-
peiitie institnies, thereby ^ivin/^ris(‘ to the theory of "‘ra))-
port' since the paticaits eontimu‘d to take no notice of any
command or snj^gestion unless it was given by the o}HTator
himself. “ Itapport *' may b(‘ still observ(‘(l, unless contrary
suggestion is given, beeausc th(‘ subject is eons(‘ions that he
is being hypnotised by one person the o|)erator. It is the
operator who is going to hy])notisc him, and no one else ;
it is the subject's e\’])eetation of a sp(‘eial {)ersonal relalion-
shij) between tlu ni wJiieli so often rcaicha’s him suggestible to
the opera tor's commands only.

hi "‘rapport," elements of so-called negative liallueina-
tion " (‘hUt into th(‘ picture. Tlu‘ term "" negative hallu¬
cination " is common in the literature of liypnotism : a
“ negative hallucination is said to occur when the subject
no longer he‘ars or st‘es certain piTSons or obje(‘ts prf‘se*ut
around him. For exam))l(*. if it is suggeste‘d to tlu* subje^ed.
that he can neither hear nor s(*e a third person vvlio is actually
present in the re)()m, and he is theai told to sit upe)n the chair
whie*h that person is oe'ciipying, he will sit on that peTSon’s
lap, apparently oblivious to his pre*sehee‘, neither seeing nor
feeiing liim. He will claim that he* is sitting on tlie chair and
will even d(‘scribe or invent in detail those parts of the* chair
which arc obseureei from view by the be)dy of the* other
person as if he could actually se*e them. Te) account for this,
it lias often Ijeen supposed that the hy}motised subject
hallucinate s those parts e)f his irnmediate e*nvironment which
are* obscured by pe*rsotKs or objects which the* eipcrator has
sugge‘sted are no longer theTc. This is extremely unlike‘ly,
theiugh the subject may expedience the* delusion that he se*es
them. Nor is it in the least like*ly that in such eircumstan(*cs
the subject actually fails to see or he*ar such persons eir ob¬
jects w^h(‘n the operator suggests the*y are no longer (iresent.
He will cither be acting a part or he may be suflering from a
temporary delusion, but the negative* sensory hallucination
most certainly eioes not occur- if indeed such a thiiig is at
all possible, wiiieh remains highly doubtful.

The term “ negative hallucination,” however, still has its

'^RaPPOHT” and \K(;AT1V?: IlALLUCINATroXS 85

US(‘S, iiUhougli negative’ (Elusion would Ue far more apjm)-
priate. It is a curious fact that the literature of hypnotism
poss(*sscs extraordinary few riferenees to th(‘ subject of
hypnotic delusions. Yet suggest(*d tlelusions probably play
a great(T part in the |»henonicna of hypjudisin than any
other single factor and th(‘y do nor appe^ar to b(‘ always
confin(‘d to tin* suhjert !

Ahnopmal Ki’kixts Pitom ( kd by Hn pnosis

I{e])orts oftlu' extraordinary (‘fleets |)roduced by hypnoli(‘
suggestion have reached absurd lu ighis of exaggeration ;
inueh of this, howe\ er, is due to th(‘ misinte rpretation of
results observ(‘d in hypnotic (‘xperiinents. Suggc'stion can
preuluee results which an* not attainable by voluntary means
in the normal state ; but it is not often r(‘alised that nearly
every etTc‘ct which has been ol)tained in the clinic through tlm
use of hypuogenie methods of inducing suggestibility may
also be obtaiiK'd by m(*thods of ‘'waking*' suggestion.
It is mainly a (|uestion of teehni(]ue.

Very (*oninionly reporteci are experiments which purport to
sIkov that hypera(‘sth(‘sia or extreme hypea’aeuity of the
senses can be induced by hvjmotie suggivstion. IModern
experiment has shown that th(‘re is little foundation in such
claims. Minimal cues and slight involuntary articulations
by I be n])erator are rr(M]\U'ntly responsible for bypnotis(*d
s\il)jcets h(‘ing apparently al>le to see or hear signs and sounds
bi‘yon(l tlieir jjonual range. Incn'ased ability to (‘oneenirate
and heightened powers of observation an*, indeed, oft(‘n ob¬
served under th(‘ influenec* of hypnotic suggestion, arid much
of tlu‘ " hvperaesthesia ” r(‘ported (*an be attribut(‘d to su(‘h
fa(‘tors as these.

Hut th(‘ ehi(‘.f factor p(Tp(‘tual ing tiie b(‘lief in hy])notie
hy]>era(‘slbesia is tlie ease witli which many subjects can b(‘
delud(‘d that they have aeejuired hypc‘raesthetie powers
under the inlluenee of hypnosis. In the well-known experi-
nu rits of Ihrgson and llobinet in 1887, a hyjinotised boy was
apparently able to read l(‘tt(Ts 8mni. in height in the corm^al
r(‘fl(‘etion of the operator’s eye; * but this is in fact a totally
^ iicvnv Nov(!iiii>er, 1888.

S(> Thk Psycholo<;y of tuf Otcvi/r

impossible feat (Snini. being the outside limit), and was
undoubtedly due to slight involuntary articulation or other
cues provided V)y the o])erator.

lh\til recent years virtually the whole of hypnotic t'Xperi-
mentation has been carried out in an amateurish fashion.
The rej>orts of effects {)rodu(‘(‘d by hypnosis very seldom
contain information concerning control-experiments, i.t‘.
experiments to test the subject’s reactions in his normal stat(^
whicli can be (‘ompared to his reactions when hyj)notis(‘d.
Without such control-experiments- particularly if the sub¬
ject is a hysteric—it is imjwssiblc to tell whether the sub¬
ject's r(‘actions under the influence of hypnosis are in any way
difl‘er(‘jit from those of his normal state, or ev(‘n whetluT the
same reactions (‘ould not be produ(‘(‘d by imitation or pn*-
tencc.

Quite surprising effects have been produced by means of
ordinary verbal suggestions from wliieh all elements of
hypnosis have V)e(‘n entirely absent. In fact only two
phenomena p(?culiar to liypnoti(‘ suggestion are thoroughly
established, viz, post-hypnotic amnesia and hypnotic* anal¬
gesia. All the other clf(*ets reputedly brought about by
hypnotic suggestion can, except in cases where hysterical
dissociation is already j^resent, be parall(*led by “waking”
suggestion.

For exarn])le, experiments carried out by lleilig and Iloif '
have shown that the gastric sc(*rctions arc easily anected by
ordinary verbal suggestions of relish or disgust made* b(*fore
the subject starts to (*at. Similarly, simple verbal suggestions
of pleasant or unpleasant moods or emotions can alter the
rate of secretions and the chemical cont(*nt of the normal
person’s urine, though here the effect is notic(‘ably grc'atcr
when the subject’s suggestibility has been increased by
hypnogenic methods.*

Experiments carried out l)y Marx in hypnotic suggestion
proved that the amount of uriiu* secreted during the following
hour can be artificially incr(*ascd if the* hypnotised subject is
handed an empty glass and the suggestion is made to him

* livitrage zur Jlypnotischm Reeiitflussunff der Mafierifuurtion,

iscJie Klinik, 21, p]». 102-:}’ 1925.

* Deutsche Mvdizinische Wochi uschrifl, 51, j)p. 1015-e», 1925.

Abnormal Ekflcts PRomTOLo by Hypnosis

S7

that he is drinking large (|iiantities of water and enjoying it.*
But with naturally suggestible subjects the sanu' effeets were
achieved by non-hypnotic s\jggestion. It can be seen from
this that the n(‘(‘d for control-experiments is imptrative if
we arc to be allowed to compare the subj(‘et's reactions when
in his normal state and his redactions whin hyjmolised.
Obviously they are bound to vary with (‘ar*h individual, and
to a. certain ext(‘nt with each different op<n-ator.

A good illustrjition (»f the use of eontrol-expc'riuuaits
is provided bvlj(^vine.‘ lie sue(‘(‘ssfully indue(‘d local anal¬
gesia by hypnotic* suggestion and ])ri(*ked the affected area
with a ne(‘dl(*. This normally painful stimulus faiU'd to j)r()-
duee the usual alteration in (‘leetrieal potential known as the
psychogalvanic response. Waking suggestion, he found,
could not jm‘vent the ]isy(‘hogalvanic r(‘sj)onse from oc¬
curring. He th(‘n tried anotlier (‘X{)(*riment : h(* suggested
the haliurination of b(*ing |)rieked with a needle; this im¬
mediately j)rodue(*(l a, j)syeh()galvani(‘ res))onse. Most oper¬
ators in th(* past would have* been content to publish this last
effect as yet anoth(‘r spe(‘taeular example of hypnotic!
suggc‘stion ! Levine, hovv(‘vc*r. next proc*c‘c*cietl to carry out
control-experiments and found that prc*eisely the* same
rc'sponse oc*c*urrc*d with non-hypnotic* suggestion.

The c'oncrlusion to which the* above*-mcaitioned (‘xpe riments
lead us is that with subjc*c*ts who are naturally suggestible the
effec*ts of waking suggc'stion arc* often far more* striking than
is genc*rally rc*eognised and that in genc‘ral hypnotic experi-
nic*ntcTs have* mistakenly rc‘gardc*cl these c*lfc‘ets as j)c*euliar
to liypnosis.

The (juestion arises as to whc'tlier suc*h j)syc*hologieal
stimuli as sugg(!stion can jmxluce c‘lleets wJiich are beyond
the normal powers of the subjc*et. The answer is that
hypnotic suggestion is merely one of many ])sy(*hologieal
stimuli which c*an produc*e such elf(*c*ts ; it can produc'c
effects which are beyond the normal control of the will, but

» Ihitnsurhunfien uhrr dm VVasserhamhaU, 11. Dir Psy-

chischv Herinfhissurifi drs Wasserhaushfdtrs, Klinisclu* Woi'tieii-
selirift, 5, pp.

* M., Psychogalvanic Reaction to Painful, Stimuli in Hypnotic

and Hysterical Anaesthesia^ Bulletin of the Jolin Ilopkiir.s
Hospital, laao, pp.

SN Tin: PsvcHOLociY of tiik OrcriT

usually only in individuals who are suggestible above the
average or wlio tend to latent or aetiial hysteria. Suggested
analg(‘sia is one sueli elTeet, which finds a close jiarallel in
hysterical analgesia. If the rigid, subjects and the correct
technique are used, suggestion may also iuereuse a s\ibjeei’s
physical stn^ngth or endurance. There is nothing surprising
in this. Other psychological stimuli sueli as fear, or desire
for reward or praise, can produ(‘(* the same t freets.

Tliere is als<» the vexed question whether hypnosis facili¬
tates the recall of (‘\eids which liav(‘ bein forgotten by the
subj(‘et. Can hypnosis, in facd. improve th(' irn'inory ?
Modern investigation shows that with the normal jxTSon
h\ pnosis has, if anything, a slightly dek terious idfeet on the
memory. With hysterical subjeets, on tlie other hand,
espc'ciallv ease s of hysteri(‘al amnesia, the t^lfecd of hypnosis
on th(‘ ability to recall past e\ents is often ver> striking.
He])orts of hysterical subjeets being able, through hypnotic
suggestion, to recall memories of their (btdal exisUaiee, or
(‘V(‘n of extrc ine infancy, (*an be rejected.

Coi.LKrnvF IIVCNOSIS

Th(‘re is still mu(*h discussion as to whetlun* colk'ctive
hyjuiotie suggestion is j)ossible wJiether one man can
(Ifeetively use hy])notie suggestion on a large number of
])eo})le simultaneously. nesj)it(‘ nmch that has been written
to the contrary, this f(‘at has bicri r(q)eate(lly performed by
\aude\ill<‘ liypnotists. One trick, used by a wt‘ll known
Knglisli vaudeville liypnotist, (Visson, is for tlie audicaicc to
j)laee their hands, with lingers interlo(*ked, firmly down on
th{‘ crown of their head, j)alms upwards. After a uumber of
demonstrations of hv|)notie suggestion on the stage, con¬
siderable numbers of the audience wdll t)e readily susceptible
to any sugg(‘sti()n made by the hypnotist, so that wluai he
annonnees that many of them will find it impc^ssible to move
th(‘ir bands apart, a fair j)ereeiitag(‘ of the audience some¬
times as many as a hundred or uiore—find themselves
imahle to do so until the liypnotist tells them to mov(' them.
There is no doubt at all that under favourable conditions
eolkctivc^ suggestion can be extremely efleetive. In primi-

HyVNOSIS ho

tive peoples strong? delusions, illusions, and possibly visual
hailueinations, can be suggested en masse —tlie sugg(‘stioii
^eeei^'ing extra force Ihrougli llie resulting contagion of
ideas and emotions to whicfli crowds of people ar(‘ invariably
subject.

The phras(‘ collective liypnotie suggesUoir’ is, of (‘ourse,
only applicable in instances when^ the operator uses a hypno-
genic lechni(pi(' in inducing an abnormal degr(‘(‘ of sug¬
gestibility in liis crowd of subjects. l"sually “collective
suggestion ’* is th(‘ more appropriat(‘ t(*rm. It is of great
interest in this connection to note that in primitive coni-
niunities gemiiiu* hypnog(‘nie t<^e!ini(]U(‘s arc fr<‘(jueiitly the
rule* wh(*ii the shaman or medicine man recjuires to exercise
collective^ suggestion, monotonous chanting and the rythmic
beating of the tom-toms taking the place of the less exacting
nu thoels of the we^stern liyjmotie opeTator.

It is perliaps a comment on the time's that the lirilish
Itreiaelcasting evaporation has banned hy])notism from the
television seri'cn. This foUowe'd a private test in in

which tVisson televised his ability as a hypnotist. Three
e)f the* aueli<‘nce of H.li.CV t(‘le'visie)n engineers were se)e)u
in a flci'p hy|)notie sle*cp. Twe» e)l‘ them went into st) eleep
a sleep that it reepiired (Vissem in the* flesh te> awaken thean.
Kllee*ti\’(‘ hvj)ne)tie suggestie)n by televisie>n le‘ave‘s us r»o
r<*ase)n to doubt that it e*emld be denie by me*ans e)f a cinema¬
tograph film as we*ll. Some psyche)!herapists have* used
gramophone ree*ords e)f their voices giving suggestions
appeadaining te) sle^ep te) jiatiemts sulTering from insomnia.
The suee*ess of this method dej)ends on the patient having
been given hypnotic suggestion a numlKT of times j)reviously
by tie* <)j)erator in perse)n.

Fallacies Concehnini; IlYrxoTisM

TIutc is a widespr(‘ad belief amemg the general public that
to allow onese'lf to be hy^pnotised is to “ surrendcT one’s
will to another perse)n. Within a very limited sense this is
certainly true if one ignores the ambiguity (^f the terms
involved ; for during the time that the subject is hypnotised
his normal facidty of volition is largclv in al)evanee. Never-

90

Tiir: PsYC’iioLociY of thk Octui.t

thdess this is only a v(Ty temporary affair, although with
post-hypnotic suggestion it may be considered to have an
extended inlluenee.

In primitive society, however, suggestion can wreak havoc
witli the mind of the individual by working on fears and
su])crstitions, inculcated since infancy. Jlut there again
hypnosis is not generally the means wher(d)y the suggestion
is in\plaided. To be hypnotised too frequently may n^sult
in harm, jmrtieularly in tlie case of hysteric's, and to hv hv})-
notised by unscrupulous persons is cc'rlainly a thing to Ik‘
avoided on principle. lint in any event the harm j)ossible
through hypnosis is extrc'inely limitc'd in civilised societies,
and is eoidined almost entirely to p('oj)lc with a high degree
of hystcTia in tlieir make up. While' the average* pe rson has
nothing to fear in allowing himself to be hypnotised, the
enects on primitive and superstitious minds may be pre*-
('isely the reverse', parti(*ularly if the hypnotist is malevo¬
lently or vindictivc'ly ineliiu'd.

Normally the }iy})notised subject will not carry out actions
which are contrary to his sense of what is criminal or immoral.
This rncelianism of self-{)rot(‘(‘tion under hypnosis lias built
uj) a belief that it is absolutely imjiossiblc to jiersuade
naturally hone'sl and normal persons to commit criminal
olfe'nees at the instigation of the* ope*rator. While this is
gcj (Tally true, ( xpe riments have shown that by usi?ig
ecTiain s})(!cialised hypnotic teehniepu's some* subjects can
undoubtedly be eomp(*lIed to carry on! criminal actions
unw ittingly. ’ Jt would be impossible*, howc'vcr. to mak(* any
normal subject (*arry them out unless he had first consented
to exp(*riments in hypnosis.

There* is no truth in the belief that once the* hypnotist
has induced a deep hyjinoiic sleep the subjc'ct may never
wake u]). In |)rimitive societies this might (‘onceivably be
possible although there is no direct evide*nce to affirm this.
In modern socie ty, however, such an oceurc'nee* is out of the
que*stion ; if tlie* operator docs not awaken the sutiject, the
latter will awake n himself after a feew hours, though with

^ Wells, W. H., ICxpvrimnits in the Hypnotic Production of Crime, .leMiriial
of INye liologv, 11, pp.

Hre'iHiiati, M., Experiments in the Hypnotic Prmluetion of Anti-Soeinl
and Seff-Injurious Hehauiour, Psyerliiatry, Vol. V, |>f). !•!)-(» 1.

FaLI.ACIKS CONCKWNlNd HYI»N<>TiSM

\n

deeply hysterical subjects the time taken to awake may last
a day or lonjrer if left to theins(‘lves ; a ^reat d(*al depends on
how tired the subject is at the time.

Th<‘ eatapleetie state, either rigid or “ plastic (when the
operator can l)end th(‘ liml>s into any sort of fantastic^ |)osition
without much resistance and leave them there without
moving), is easily achieved, even in eomparatively light
stages of hypnosis. In tlie deeper stages of hyf)nosis,
cataplexy can beeonu* so rigid that some subje^ets of ordinary
strength c*an support th(‘ outstrelehed body only l)y the
head and ankles and can further support the* weight of
sev(‘ral stone on the abdomen without eollaj)sing.

Hypnotism and the Hkajn

“ Plastic ” cataplexy can also be induced in such aniinals
as crayfish, frogs and snakes by monotonous stroking of the
back or IxOly. In some of Pavlov's (xperimeids, this
strange form of cataplexy was obscTved in dogs and was
usually brought about by the monotony of re])eat(‘d sensory
stimuli and Hie general bon'dom resulting from the ( xperi-
ments. The dog would go into a kind of tran(‘e. standing
perfectly erect and motionless, soiiKdimes for hours at a
time. There* was no relaxation of the* museles as is found in
true sleep, and if the legs were moved into a m vv position
they would remain there. The dog's salivary glamls (ould
be made to excrete* e’e){)ie)us saliva when the app?'e>priate
seimiel or smell stimulus was applieel, showing that at least a.
part e)f the de)g’s brain was in full e)pe*ratie>n. With e*him-
panze*es hypne»sis e*an be ineluee el by "" hununi " methe)els.

From suedi e*xpeTime*nts Pavle»v was h‘el to formulate* a
the‘e)ry f)f hypneisis anel its relatie>n to normal sl(*(*p. 'Fhe
corte.v of the brain, e)fte*n refe*rre‘el te) as the grew matter,”
is the e)ute*r laye*r e>f the* brain, anel is the* part re*sponsible* for
all e)ur thinking, ratieinalisation. juelgment, anel eliserimitia-
tie)n. The subeH)rtie*al e*e*ntre*s e>f the* i)raiii le>ok after all our
Hutoinatie aetivitie*s sue*h as retaining our balance and co¬
ordinating our muscle's. Sle*ep, jie*ee)rding to Pavlov,
involves almost comjile'te* ‘'’inhibition ’’ e)f the activity of
both the cortex and the subeortie*al centres. He believed

<>‘2

Till*: Fsv( lun.ocY ov tiik Ovcvi.t

that hypnosis invohes tho inhibition ot‘ the cortox only,
leaving the antoinatie fnnetions of I he Iowct centres of the
brain wbboiit the control normally pnn'idcd l)y llu‘ cortex.

Pavlov’s neurological <‘X])lanalion succeeds only in ex-
])laining certain very limited espeets of liypnosis and his
general tlieory tliat hypnosis is a })artial slee}) of the eerc'bra)
functions is no long(‘r t(‘liable. Vet judgment and dis¬
crimination \ver(‘ among the last faculties to (‘merge in the
scale of biological evolution, and. as has Ixnai observed in
mental and physical disease involving the brain. th(\y are the
first fa(‘uHi(‘s to bc(*ome impaired. It is possible that in many
hypnotic edeets we witness the partial oblihTation of those
aeejuinineiits of the brain which we re th(‘ last to dev<‘lop
during tlx* course of evolution.

If it weTe asked wIk'IIkt th(T(‘ was any one nuMital fa,(MiIty
through wlu(‘li the hypnotist mainly operal(‘d to bring about
his effeets, the* answer would probably be' that it was through
llie imagination. The' efTV'ets of imagination upon mental
and physical jiroeessc s can be very gre'at, as is well known,
and the liy})notie operator appe'ars to be' able to make' tlie
me'(*lianism of imagination work overtime'.

Modern s(*ieiiee has establisluHl beyond all cavil that
imagination and all otJier psyehologie/al jiroeesses possess a
physiological basis, A physiological explanation of sug¬
gestion, however, is still a very long way from being evolved,
Gre*at advances in onr knowledge are' reepiired before we
can even hope' to re solve this ])roblem. As a pointer, Jiow-
e've‘r. it may be noted that hypnotic suggestion can produ(*e
certain (‘deeds on the' brain by psyedioleigical means which
can normally be [)re>dueH*d in he'althy pe‘rse>ns einly by the
use* e)f elrugs. (icneral hyjiiioiie auae'sUu'sia is one example.

Since' all psyelie)logieal proe*<‘sse*s liave' a physiological,
anel hence pliysie-al. basis, we are' not really elealirig with
two ultirnate'ly insej)arable pre>cesse*s, xuz. the physical and
the ))sye*he)logical. All ultimately depenels on ehaiige'S in
the elee'tro-biochemistry e)f the braiu auel ii(‘rve)us system,
liedli me)rphiiH‘ anel liypnotie* suggi^stiem may eiisee>mu^et
the pain-pe'reeiving element in the ee*n*brnm withe)ut alfec-
tijig the periphi'ral nerve eej)tres, anel we* eaniie)t de)ubt that
we are* faced with re*lat(*(l jJivsiologieal pre>e(*sses any more

IIyJ'XOTI^M AM) Till’, l{l(AL\

!»;i

Ihfin wc nil) doubt the reliitediiess (if the processes involved
in the produetion of visual hallneiiiHlioiis by dni}{s find Ihose
found in psyehojfenie insanity.

It is likely that susecfitibility to su^f^estion is reljited
to th<' facility with which a subject re.-iets to certain nar¬
cotics such as o[)itini. East(‘n) peoples can be hyj)not.ised
with eoinparative facility and it is a. fact of ex|)erience
that in eonipiirison with the brains of Europeans, the brains
of the people of Eastern .Vsia :ire fiir more sensi1i\c to the
distillation products of opium.”” Such hijfhly spoeulativi'
topics, how('ver, luid best be left to future res('areh.

• Hesse, K. SumtlicH and Drnoi Addivti<ni, |). ‘JO. N.Y. IfUO.

( haplcr Sewn

HAhlA ( ISATIOSS- VISIONS AND VOICES

TThk tkijm jialm ( inatiox ” was coiiiod hy ihc‘ French
j)syc*hiaIrisi Jcai) FiS<j\iirol in iSiiS. From linu* to time
(inrinj; the pre<*cflin^ centuries isolated attcnipts had been
rnad(* to t*larify the nature of liaUueinations, but tlie views
j)ul ibrwarfl werr s<‘hU)m a(a‘epted. As louj^- a^o as tlu?
si‘V(‘nth e(‘nlury Ah'xander of* Tralles, a lainous liyzantine
physician, recognised tin* existt‘ne(‘ of liallueiiiations and
propos(‘d methods to cure them. Fntil (‘on^paraiively
n:odern times hallucinations have* <^cnerally b(‘cn credited
with an occult sif]^nilieau(‘c. Tiny havt* giv(*n ris(,‘ to beliefs
in magical i>v divii\e powers of tin* p(‘reipic*nt, and have
s()in(‘liines played a considerable role in altc*rinf»- tin* course
of history- tin* liallueinalory voic*(*s and visions of Joan
<>f Ar<* })ein^ orn* t‘xampl(‘. Today tin* cult of crystal ^azinj^,
or scry in", still draws ^rcat numlxrs of people to Ixdicve
in the occult powers of c(*rtain individuals ; a. cornet under¬
standing of the psychological basis of crystal and ot.ht*r
tyiKs of “ vision " would (lo a great deal to dispel su(?h
irrational beliefs. Many a talc of ghosts or apparitions
would iu*vcr have arisen if the true nature of such phenomena
had first bc‘(*n apprcciatc‘d.

Hallucinations mainly take two forms auditory and
visual. Tru(* hallucinations are genuine p(‘rceptual sensa¬
tions, that is to say the individual concerned really ex-
perii nccs the sights and sounds which constitute* the halhi-
c‘ination. Hroadly speaking, the differenc(^ between normal
vision and a visual hallucination lies in the fact that whereas
normal visual perception is brought into existence by the

O 1

lI.\ij.i (’i\ATi()Ns - Visions and Vok ks

1)5

stimulation of (‘k^ctronia^jrnetk* li^ht rays impin^iny; n{)Oii
the retina of the cy(\ such stinmlation is absent in tlie ease
of hallueinalory pereeption the pereipient experienees
th(‘ se nsation of seeing a figure, a secaie or an objeet, without
tfu' normal stimuli provided by eleetromagnetie radiations.
Similarly, in the ease of auditory hallneinat ions, tlie per-
eij)ient may eh'arly hear sounds and \f)ie(‘s without the
stimuli }w<nkl<‘d by the atmospherie vil)rations whiedi
constitute sound waves. The* visual or auditory pcTeepts
eontaiiK'd in the liallueination thus liave no (orrespondirig
existence in the outside world. They are produced auto*
psychically, by the sul)j(‘et’s own mental processes.

The diUVrcnei* between hallucinations and illusunui
should b(‘ clearly understood. Hallucinations may be
dehned as gemiine piTceptual sensations which aris(^ when
no stimulus is acting on the appropriate scaise organ. An
illusion on tlu* other hand, may be defined as a misinter-
ywetation of an aet\nd sense-impression ; in the ease of an
optical illusion the perei[)ient actually sees an objecd but
mistakes its actual form, as when in the distance a (‘ow is
(‘learly seen which on closer approach is recognised to be
nothing but a bush. l'hert‘ are, of course, all degrcTs of
variation between an illusion and a pure liallueination.

In th<^ ease of a sane person hallueuiatitms may or may
not inv^olve dvlusum^ i.e. belief in tlu' reality of tlu‘ object
pcrei'ived. Amongst the insane, as for example with
schizophrenics (who frecpiently suffer from persistent hallu¬
cinations or hallucmosis)^ failure to recognise the figures
or voices as unreal is the rule rather then tha exception.
Hut even among the sane, as in the ease of some wdio suffer
from hysterical maladies, the more vivid and persistent the
hallucinations th(‘ greater the lenden(*y to believe in their
reality.

GeiKTally sjieaking, provided that the' pereipi(*nt has a
reasonably rational outlook on life, he recognises a spont¬
aneous hallucination as something wdiich has no existence
apart from his own mind. With some uneducated jieople
or in primitive societies, however, the question of tlu^ reality
or non-reality of hallucinatory visions and voi(!t*s seldom
arises; they simply accept them at face value without
further speculation. On the other hand, eminently sane

Tiik Psy( noLooY or thk Oocui/r

oc;

people who have oeeasioiuilly experieiieed visual halhie<
illations have often taken the greatest ph^asure and interest
in them wliile fully recognising their psytiliologiea 1 origin.

Joan of Ar(\ a peasant girl, experienced hallueiivatory
voices and visions of angels ; uialer their inspiration she was
led to the eomniand of the Fren(‘h army which defeated
the English. Socrat(*s, too, hacl his hallucinatory daemon
voice which warned and guided him. St. Paul’s greal hyst¬
erical crisis on the Damaseus main road, in which he experi¬
enced the hallueinalion of seeing Jesus and hearing a voie(‘
which su(Tin(‘lIy expressed his own hitherto r(‘pr(‘ssed and
emotionally supercharg(‘d doubts, is an excellent instaru^c
of a hallucination. St. Paul’s conversion to the new faith
was hammend home still further by the sudden functional
blindness which resulted from his hysterical attack and
of which h(^ was eventually curcfl by a combination of
suggestion and resolution of mental strain in accordance
with accepted ])syehiatric principles of today. It is possible
that Christ himself, in common with many othcT great
redigious mystics, experienced visual and auditory hallu¬
cinations. This, however, is diflieult to verify with any
certainty in view of the unreliability of many of the New
Testa nicnt texts.

The great majority of staisory hallucinations are found
among the insane and in certain affections of the brain.
In delirium tremens A^r example, which is du(‘ to chronic
alcoholic poisoning, hallucinations of rats, spiders, f1ain(\s
or snakes occur with peculiar frequency ; thf‘S(f hallucin¬
ations are often of such a terrifying charactcT that the patient
will scream with terror aT)d struggle fren/.iedly in order to
escape from them. Epileptic seizures, too, are often accom¬
panied by highly fan(!iful hallucinations whicdi are rxoasion-
ally beautiful or evc'ii noble in character.

Some of the most interesting of hallucinatory phenomena
are to be found in cases where the brain is afT(x;ted by in jury,
tumours, or surgicial operations. In such instances hallu¬
cinations of vision, hearing, taste, or smell are not uncommon;
visual hallucinations appear in that side of the visual field
opposite to that in which the affected temporal lobe of the
brain is situated. Rosett describes how a lady who had
had a large tumour of the right temporal lobe experienced

Hau.mcinations V'isions and Vok’ks * J 7

many l)i/.arrc visual hallunnations which were always ob¬
served to the left. Th(‘V usually consisted r)f [x^ople h(‘having
very oddly, as, for example, a woman riding t)n horseback
with a sheet of music propped in fro?)! of lu r and using her
hands as though slie [)layed lh(‘ piano on the horse's n(*ek.*

As just iK>t(^d, halhicinatiofis of hearing and vision are
(‘oriimon in several ty{)cs of insanity/ Uneinale* hallu¬
cinations hallii(‘inations of taste and smell and tactile
hallucinations, e.g. of crawling hugs or ins(*ets or of being
pinch(*d by “ devils ”, also occur. Auditory liallueinations
ar(‘, howev(T, by far the (‘ommon(‘st. Many i)sy(*noties
have chronic hallucinations of voices n vilirjg them in the
most obsceaie terms, mo<‘king thean or (‘ven urging them
on to suicide. Other psychoties exp(Ti(‘!iee iie\cr-ending
visions of devils, angels, the* figures of their imagined perse¬
cutors, animals, or a wliolc phantasmagoria of the* utmost
complexity. Yet other j)atients may eontinuously experi¬
ence awful tastes and snudls (ca(H>smia) which make it
nearly impossible to cat their food. Auditory hallucin¬
ations are sometimes in the very old during the phase prior
to death ; not uncommonly they will hold prolonged conver¬
sations with their long dcpart(‘d husbands or wives and may
be h(%'ird urging them to speak more clearly

Among the sane, spontaneous visual liallueinations,
though rare, appear to occur more* often wlien the ( ves are
open and in the light. Less frequently rejiorted arc visual
hallucinations when the (‘yes are shut or when darkness
prevails, although more than one ghost ” or “ apparition ”
has probably received its genesis as a self-luminous hallucin¬
atory figure in the dark or one which appeared in a luminous
mist.

Hallucinatory sounds or voices oftcMi ap})(‘ar to tlie [>(‘r-
cipient to come from outside of liirn, and ev(‘n from ecrtaiii
well-dcfincil loc^ations in space. Others appear to hear
the voices within their own lieads or chests. Until compara¬
tively modern days these voices were inviiriahly attributed
to devils, spirits, angels, God or the Devil, according to

* Kosett, .1., The Mechanism of Thoughty Iniagenj and [lallncinationy

p. 1«0, N.Y. 1939.

* “ Insanity ” is mainly a popular or legal term. Tsycliosis ” is its

medical equivalent.

9S Tm: Psychoi.(k;y or tiik 0(u ui/r

their general tone or content. Socrates’ (UiemmK whos(
advice and monitions he valued so hij^hly, was of the “■ int(T-
nal sort.

The vivi(i!K\ss and clarity of ^ennine halhiciinilorv jmt-
ceptions are mort* ofte?» than not (‘(pjal to thos(‘ of normal
vision and audition. The painh r Montana used to s(‘t‘ the
picture he was about to paint so vividly in front of him
that he was obliged to requ(\st anyone standin^r between
himself and the ludlueinatory lij^ure or scene to stand aside.
Often enough a sane percipient only realises the hallu(*inatory
nature of what h(‘ lias seen ” after the i xperience has passed.
This is not surprising sin(‘e visual hallucinations are often
projected with an amazing sense of j)ers|)e(‘ti\(‘ and n^ality
e(pjal to that ex[)erien(H‘d in normal vision.

Among the saiu*. spontaneous hallucinations may oc(*ur
once in a lifetime and last only for a second or two, or they
may occur more frecjuently when their genesis is oi' liysterical
origin, and last for several minutes or ( ven longer. Some-
tim(‘s more than one of the senses is affected, as in tliose
cases where the hyst<‘rical subject appears to see, and hold
conversations wnth, his hallucinatory visitants, and e\(‘n
feel their touch. Amongst the insane, tri-sensory hallucin¬
ations ar(‘ [irobably not uncommon, although this is dillicult
to assess since jisychotie halluianations are almost invari¬
ably intermixed with the patient’s delusions.

It is sfunctinu's elairued that hallueinations (‘an he divided,
superficially, into two ty}>es ; thos(* which are totally fanciful
and wdiieh bear little or no rational r(‘lation to th(‘ (aivinjn-
ment at the tiriie e.g. the sehizophreni(‘ who sec's ang<‘ls
with blazing swairds (aigaged in acTobaties ; and thos(‘ less
common hallucinations which fit into th(ar physical back¬
ground without much noticeable incongruity or anomaly,
in point of fact, such “ rational ” hallucinations, often
commented upon for the remarkable facility wdth which
they are adaptixl to the immediate [iliysical environment,
arc generally the product of delusion, dreamlike states,
or sensory illusion. They arc best cvidcaiccd with purported
hallucinablc hysterics who have been hypnotised; if a
figure of a friend or acquaintance is suggested by the operator
to be in the room, the figure will apparently appear to the
subject to be perfectly normally behaved, will sit down

Hai.lucixatioNv^ Visions and Voicks

1)9

ill th(‘ cliuir, flick ci^mrcttc asfi into the ash tray and even
cast a shadow on th(* walls ; there apj)ears little or no in-
eon^ruily of presentation. Such “ halhieinations as these,
however, seldom involve* actual sense-imagery.

"rii(‘rc has always in the past b(‘cn ^nat confusion on
the subject of hypnotic and hysterical hallucinations,
and it is still manifest in much of the* e*onte*mj)e)rary literature
e>f psyehopatholei^y. A ^(‘imine sense»rv hallucinatie>n,
])roperly so-called, invariably residts from the elisfunction
e)f the* e'erebral me'edianism peTbiinin^ to se*nsorv j>eTe*eptie)n.
The pere*e‘ptie)n-m(‘ehanisni of the brain starts ope‘ratinjLr
e)f its own aerorel, as it w(‘r(\ without the^ e xternal stimulus
e)f li^lit wave*s, sound waves, edc.. wdiie*h an* ne)nnally
nee*e*ssar\ for its operation. Sue*h elisfunetie)ns e)f tlu* cerebral
pe‘re*eption-me‘e*hanism an* due to a numbe*r e)f diflere‘nt
e*ause*s : amongst the more ee>mnion are the* effects pro-
due*e^el by elru^s, ce rebral in jury e)r elist ast*, sur{^ie‘al e)pe‘ratie)ns
e)n the brain, anel diire*n‘nt type's e)f psye‘he)sis whieh re*sult
in deleterious changes in the e*('r(‘bral functie)ns. Many
of tlu* hallueinatiems of the insane an* attributable to dc'lu-
sie)ns e)r se'usory illusie)ns, whiedi may 1)0 so inte'use as to
reMider tlu* diebotomy of little* signifie*ane*e* fe)r most practie^al
purposes.

Normal healthy peH)ple* may also ('xpcTie nee an occasional
sensory hallueinaiieni ; but the pe'n^eption-me ebanism e>f
the brain is ne)t e*asily disruj)tcel. for it is too well geareel
te) the incoming nervous impulse's which arrive from the
sensory lUTve-teTininals all over the be)dy. When otlu'r-
wise healthy people expe'rience genuine sensory hallucin¬
ations the cause, is usually found in some temporary tox¬
aemia, extreme fatigue or pre)longe*d fasting. Intense
emotion may sometime'S result in genuine* hailueinations
through its e'ffee'ts on the brain, particularly the emotion
of fe'ar, although nK)st re'})orte*d ease's of hallucinations
bre)ught abe)ut by this factor are generally attributable
to vivid sensory illusions.

In hypnosis and hysteria genuine* sensory hallucinations
arc a rarity. With certain hysterics they do undoubtedly
occur, but the great majority of hysterical hallucinations
arc the produe*t of vivid se'usory illusions, delusions, eidetic
imagery and drowsy or dreamlike states of consciousness.

100

'riu: l\sY(’n()ixK;Y ok tuk Okcult

Hypnotic halluciiuitions, so (‘ailed, ari‘ j^eiuTally dii(‘ 1o
sn^^cst(*d delusion i.e. the* sidijcci may bcliiw he is seeing
or hearing something wlu ii in fact he is liot ; more fre(|U('nt,
perhaps, are those a})j)an‘nt halhieinations of tiu* hypnotisi'd
subjeet which ar(‘ due to miming or acting and whkdi may
or may not bt' a(‘conipani(‘d by som(‘ (h'gne of subj(‘etive
d:(‘lusion. A'Vilh liystcries who are subject to occasional
sensory hallueinations. hovvev(*r, it s(‘<‘ms probable* that
hypnotic suggestion may induce* actual hallue‘inatory
sense-imagery.

Hysle'rical and hyi)notie hallucinations are*, in general,
pseudo-liallueinations and shoidd be rigidly elistinguish(*d
from the genuine* sensory hallucinations eause*d b\’ the
disfun(*tion of the ee*r(*bral per(‘e|)tie)n-nu*(*hanism. Nev(*r~
the'less. there is no broad distinguishing line be‘twe‘en the
pseudo-hallucinations and the hallueunation involving aedual
S(ms(‘-imagery. There is to be obse rv ed a fine* se rie^s of grad¬
ations ofte*n impossible* to analyse* since* the d(‘gree of sub¬
jective* de‘lusion pr(‘S(‘nt is so dillieult to assess. Elements
of all three factors may be inv'olve‘d in what appe ars to b(‘
oidy a se*nsory hallueif»ation, all finding a e‘ommon meeting
ground in the* vagaries of m(*morv\ imagination, pereeption
and the mechanisms which subsume them.

Many psychiatrists hold the vk*w" that g(‘nuinc hallucin¬
ations und(*r the influence of hypnotic sugg<*stion iK*ve*r
occur at all, that the subjt‘(*t merely speaks and acts the
part indicated by the suggestions of the ofierator, with
or without aeeojujianying subje*etivc delusions. That this
is gene rally the* ease is certainly true, but as it. is generally
accepted that hysterical hallucinations occur in certain
instances, there is no real re‘ase)n to s\ipj)e)s(' tlial witli
certain hyste*rieal subjects halluednations may not be* induced
by suggestion, j)artie‘ularly if the emotions arc strongly
affected.

The vi(*w that g<*nuine‘ sensory hallucinations arc brought
about o///// when the* physioIogie‘al structure of the brain
is affected by marked j)sychosis, drugs, toxic substances,
cerebral lesions, surgical opeTations or delirium, is largt*ly
<luc to the failure to appreciate the real distinction between
physiological and psychological functions. To say that
hallucinations eannot be brought about through psyc*he>-

Hallucinations Visions ano Voicks

101

logical causes alone is to ignor(‘ the fact that all psychological
functions have a physiological basis. Il is well-known
that the cttccts of some psychological slimuli, e.g. fear,
on the body’s physiological fiiiurtioris can ( xtreuK*. The
sariK* physiological (dlccts can often Ix^ brought about by the
use of chemical drugs. Again, it is possible to induce a
psychological state of extreme fear in a subject simply by
the* injection of a chtnnical drug ! In fact, in view of the
relationship betweem the physiological functions of the brain
and that aspc(*t of them which w(‘ term “ psychological,”
there is no apparent reason why tlu^ same disfunction of the
cerebral ])roccsses which is brought about by drugs or other
physical causes and which leads to the c uk rgt ncc of hallucina¬
tions, may not also b(‘ brought about by (lisruptive psycho¬
genic factors, <\g. hyst<‘ria or suggestion.

From the point of \ iew^ of the study of (x*(‘ultisnL delusory
or pseudo hallucinatiotis whi(*h are due to suggestion, hysteria
or oth(‘r psychogenic factors possess an im})ortanc(‘ and
signilicance equal to th(‘ genuine sensory hallucination.
Suggestion can result in the subje(*t believing he has experi¬
enced a sensory hallucination when in fact h(‘ has not. Sug¬
gestion can furthermore make the subject act if be were
experiencing a sensory hallucination. Again. th(‘ border-line
between dreams and hallucinations becomes h imous where
there is drowsiness or fatigue, and a dreamlike experience is
often remembered forcibly as an hallucination ; there arc
s(‘V(Tal (‘xamplcs in psychological literature where a ilream
ligur(‘ or object was prolonged into what w^as apparently a
vivid waking hallucination, lasting several seconds after the
dreamer had opcix'd his c^yes.

Another form of pseudo-hallucination sometimes occurs
when an inward rcaniniscciux', wdiieh arises by virtiu* of some
fresh idea-association, combines with an optical after-image
to pn>ducc a hallucinatory ePfect. of surprising vivi<hiess.
Vivid optical or auditory illusions, the illusorj^ nature of which
is not suspected by the subject, may also lx* elassifu^d as
pseudo-hallucinations for the purpose of the pr(*s(*nt chaf)ter.
The interesting phenomenon of eidetic imagery may (*onven-
iently be* included under the same heading.

Hallucinations and pseudo-hallucinations possess a com¬
mon characteristic in relation to occultism in that both

102

The PsYciioLociY of the Occult

types may produce the same superstitions reactions from the
percipient. The superstitious Tunisian peasant who experi¬
ences a sensory hallucination of seeing his dead son will
believe that he saw the boy’s spirit. Likewise grief over
his bereavement may well induce a moiiientary optical
illusion under the right eireurnstanees, probably with the
same result. If lie visits a local soothsayer who hypnotises
him, the eonsecjuenee will be the same whether genuine
sensory hallucinations were induced or whether the sooth¬
sayer merely eon\ im‘ed him by suggestion that he had svm
his son. In either ease the report goes round the neighbour¬
hood that the peasant in (juestion has seen his son’s spirit
or ghost.

From the psyehologieal standpoint it is obviously of gr(‘at
importance to know for certain w^hether sane individuals, in
whatever part of the world, can be made to c'xp(Ti(Miee
genuine sensory hallucinations through the operation of
suggestion. Froni the standpoint of the investigator of
occultism this question is not so important. In many in¬
stances circumstances render it impossible to establish
whether the suggestion has resulted in a hallucination or a
pseudo-hallucination. It is suflicient to note that tla^ latt(T
are fully as capable of providing a basis for the origin and
perjM‘tuation of occult anecdotes and sujXTstitions as the
f ornicr.

Oriental literature and African tah's of the occult contain
numerous references to soothsayers, witclu's and witch¬
doctors who have the power to summon or “ con jure ” the
spirit of a dead man before the eyes of a bereaved relativi*.
Th<‘ basis (»f such tales !K*ed not always be attributed solely
to common trickery, though the reputation of a spirit-
conjuring shaman generally rests on his ability to deceive his
clients ; the modern cult of spiritualism provides thousands
of such (*xamj)les, as will be seen in a later chapter. The
possibility of sugg(‘sted hallucination or pseudo-hatlu(‘ination
is one w^hich cannot be ignored and th('re appears plenty of
evidence that this was not uncommoi^ in the ancient world.
Th(^ eas(‘ with wdii(h hysterical subjects (^an b(‘ made to
experience hallucinalions or pseudo-hallucinations in this
way lends added support to this idea.

The French physician Licbault gives an account of how.

11aLLT"( INATIOXS A^ISIONS ANO Vt)\( KS

unde r tlic innucncc* of his su^^rstion. a liypiiotiscd hyste rical
subject a])|)arcutly (‘\}M*ri(‘nccd the hallucinatinn of se*e‘iiit^
his (l(‘ad iatluT. The subje'ct sal still tor a while* ; arter
several niiimtevs lie* arose and, with e‘ves fixenl, tnrM(*(l towards
the d(»or of the room. Lie'bault aiiel the* other witn(‘sse*s

saw him profler his hand and deposit a kiss in tlie* void.'*'
\Vhe‘the*r or not this was a (*as(‘ of oeanfnie* se^nsorv halhieina-
tion e)r m(*rely a ])se‘ndo-hallnciiiatie)n, the (‘fleet of similar
(‘xhibitions on (lie minds of simple* and snp(‘rstitions audi-
<‘nee‘s ne‘(*ds no emphasis.

Hallucinations liave uneloiibte'dly playe‘(l a larye ])art in
sustaining- outmoded supe*rstitious beliefs. Anion^* hysterics
and the insane*, hallucinations often tend to re llee*! curr(‘iit
beliefs and. id(‘as of the aye*. Many hyste-rie's duriny the*
middle' ayes anel e veai late'r liael hallu(*inatory visions of tlui
devil himself; in insane* asylums toelay such (*ase‘s are ne)t
une»ommon. The belie-fs in elves. hre>wnies, fairies, sprites,
yne>mes, ye)blins, imj)s, lepivediamrs anel other proelucts of the
chilellike imayinalion of eair ancestors deaibtlevss re‘(*(‘i\'e‘el
new im])(*tus fre)m lime* to time by individuals se*(‘iny small
hallue*inatorv liyure's.

lle‘re is a mffdrrn case e»f an iuteiliye'ut e‘(hie*ale‘d lady wlu)
<*xj)ericne(*d sue*h an lialincinatiem. In this instance* the
wennan hael expe*rk*nccd oe*casie»i\al sensory hallucinations
ove‘r a le)ny pe*riod e)f time, some of whiedi we re hiyhly fanciful
in e*haraete*r ; One* summer she was evimpliny with he*?
twe) e hilelren e)n a ne*arl>y mountain. They spe nt the niyht
in tile* le)fl of a l)arn, sleepiny e)n l)lanke*ts spre,*a(l e)n hay.
She was uncomfortable* anel could not fall asle‘ep. Sudd(*nly
there* appeare*el be*fore he*? eliminitive human tiyure*s. al)e)ut a
foot tail, who wt*r(* pointiny at h(*r e*liildren. Althouyh she
knew the‘y were* unre-al. neveTthe*U*ss slit* n‘(*e^nynise*el lhcu\ as
fairie*s and tliouyht e)f wakiny up the* ehildre*n to show them
the siyht. She* arose*. Icaniny on he*? elbow, hesitaleel. and
finally de‘sist(*d from wakiny the ehilelren. The* tiyure*s them
disap[K*ared.'’“

Ame)nyst primitive p(*e)ples visual hallueinatiems often jilay
a very important })a.rt in their rite s and divinatior^ praetievs.

* Du SomtneU et desEtats Analoqurs^ ])p, und 282.

* Hossett, .r.. The Mechmiism of Thoufihty and Ilalfurination,

p. 2.55, N.V. 19;U).

104

ThK PSYCnoi.OCV OF THK OrCT l.T

TJk' art of scrying or (T\'stal-^]faziiig is frequcMiUy adapted for
these ])ur])oses. The iiuans to induce A'isiial hallueinations
or visions ar(' many ami varied. Mysti(\s in th<" })ast
have fomul that total sex\ial abstinence was eondueive to
hallueinations often of an ecstatic or mphoriv eliara(*ter.
Intense fasting, too, is still resorted to among religious cults
all over tin* worlil as an aid in producing tlie desired visions*
lioth these methods are used in conjunction, us a rule, and
ljav(' l>e< i» employed l)y prifvsts, ascetics, and medicin<*-nien
in most religions and mystical cults since time immemoriah
Prolonged si^xual re])r(‘ssi()n may easily l(‘ad to a liys1(‘rieal
stati‘ r)f mind with ils consequent temh'mues to dissociation,
])artieularly in eases where the repre^ssion is extreme to the
extent of banishing completely all erotic theaighls anel
imagery. Kxtenele^el fasting leaels to light-lmade^einess anel
everdually to eleliriuni.

Aine)ngst Asiatic anel African cults sexual (*e>ntineue*e and
s(‘V(Te‘ fasting usually e*onstitute the ]>re‘parate)rv stage in the
induediem e)f hallucinatory visions ; the*y are* inteTpreded a?;

purilication '' i)re‘paratie)ns wliiedi are* e^arried enit e)stensil)ly
te> enable* the medicine-man or sliaman io approae*h the goeis
or spirits witliout tear. I'he* aedual induedieni of sensory
hallucinations are* often bre)ught abe)ul by taking drugs or
working the subject into a state e)f fre*n/.v by orgiastic
dancing. be*ating of drums anel tom-toms, yellirtg anel shriek¬
ing, castigation, or any or all e>f the*se*.

The notorious whirling ele‘rvishe*s inelue*e ee*slatie visiems
- -or, ine)re* e-orrectly, e*uphe)ric hallueMnatie)ns by a peculiar
form of (lancing " in wdiich they sj)in at extreme spe^e*el like
a top, linally falling e xhausted or in a state of liystero-
epilepsy. Otlier means of induering hallucinations during
tin* Middle-Ages were le ngthy “ vigils ” without foocl.
Partial strangulation wliiedi brings })artial cerebral ana(‘mia
anel (*ventual loss of consciousness is anothcT me‘thod some*-
tinies used in j)rimitive* socie*tie*s to induce hallu(‘inations.

Fasting used to ]>lay an important part in many of tlie*
initiation e*crcrnonics of the AmeTiean Ifielians. At the* end
of the* fasting ])e;ri()d the* young man bc'gan to cxj)eTienc^e
hallucinations, anel when he saw' an animal in his visions it
l)ee*am(* his medie'ine*.’' In sonie tribes he was obliged to
kill an animal similar to the one he saw and carry about with

Haij j'(’ix.\Ti<)Ns Visions and You ks

105

him a cJaw, f<*a<luT, or same oUkm* ))art ol iL wliicli lu^ rmist
m)1 losi‘ on pain a\' iorlVilin<v his '•'

Ft is sij^nificarjt (o note lhat flu* word “ shaman is drrived
From lli<* Sanscrit v\(>rd mcaiiin/^- “ ascct ic." 'I'hc rcOalion-
ship between sexual contim^net* and the induction of (‘cstatic
hallucinatorv states has lK‘(‘n a|)|)rc(‘ialed for thousands of
y(*ars. Tiu^ visions pnaliUH-d by the aid of such means may
take th(‘ form of endie fantasie s or < Ise <‘nier^(‘ in a variety
of ^nis(‘s l)ased on sexual symbolisni. It is tlu‘ s(‘xual
eom[)on(‘iit wliich is partly responsible Tor tlie (‘uj)horia in
namy “ eeslalic " slates.

As J. L. Maddox Jias pointed out. llie shaman or
iiU‘(ii(‘in<'-Tuan is no! ;«lM;iys pjinioon of viitiie and si \ morality ;
In* is somrtimes llu* nwerM*. It is \vli<*a lie wisJu-s to iii<liie( theolej>tie
tils that lie praetie<‘s eon! irieii('(*. On his reeovi iy from the Iheo-
pneustii tmnee, t\is rv))ressed emnlious s<»inelimt*s e\}>lode with ah-
ixiriual violence, 'rjies<‘ <*mo1ions ha\ ini' Imth. as it W(*re. di\’eiie(i
into a foreign ehann<'K and meanwhile inenascil in foree, when Hie
n*ason for their rejiression no lonj.'^er exists, br(‘ak l)a<‘k intf> theii
normal course with iniensiii(‘d veheiiienee. Says an acute otiservir :
*■ [ know no ta<*t of pattiolnjry moo* sirikinu and ewii U iTifyinu than
Ihe way in wJiieh the |ihenomena of the <*estati(‘ state may l»<‘ plaiidy
st‘en to hridj»e the i»nlf helween the iTinoeent fooleries of ordinary
hypnotic j)alifnts, and Hie ilepraved aiul r<*pidsive ]ihenomena of
nymphomania an<! satyriasis *• Ily reason t>f tin* facility Mith which
the eeslat.ie slate passes into ahnornia) s(‘xual i inotioii. it not fie-
<jii<*ntly ha})p«Mis tiiat after their return to norma! eoiiseioosnt^ss the
representatives of the e^ods are euilt\ of iiii'^peakahle dissoli!t{‘ness *

Anslie's observation, whieli INIaddox <jUotes above, ^ains
added weight and iiilirest from tli(‘ fact tltal Ik* wrote it
Ixdbre Freud liad forFuidaitHl his lihido thi-ories (d* neurosis.

"Fhe us(* of drugs to produce hallueinaiions. either alom* or
in eombinalion witli oIIht methods, is foimd among all
j)eopU‘s in all ages. The priests of imeieni Mexi<‘o <lrank a
delirium-inducing licpiid ealknl ololuiijui. Today in parts of
Mexico the natives take pt votl (iiK*seal) or tin* snake

* Anstie, Levtmrs an Disnnlers af fh. Srrrans ‘v/v/Vr//. Tiie Lancet, Is7.‘5,

p. 4U.

• Maddox. I.., Tin' Maiulnv .\inn, p. hs.

100

Tin: Rsy( ii()Lo(;y ok thi: (k rri/r

plant.” The Sainoyeds of SibcTia utilise poisonous load-
stools for th(‘ same pur])ose. One sueli toadstool known as
lly-agarie, or seientilieally as amanita miiscaria, is bright red
with whit<‘ sj)()ts. Its intoxicatinpf projierties are retained
nearly intaet when passed out with th(‘ urine. Th(‘ toadstool
being rare, the Samoyed saves his urine to eonsurne it lat(T,
or alternatively oiu' of his friends will wait lo eateh th(‘ urine
in a vessel aiul then drink it.'* Siweral individuals may
beeom(‘ inloxieated in turn by this means bc^fore tlu* drug
loses its |>oteney.

Ill ilie ()ri<‘nt Ihe jilaiil juffanum Itannala L, is sonudimes
us(‘d in ])lae(‘ of hashish. In human b(‘ings il ri'sulis in a,
degr(‘(‘ of ( uphoria and eolourful hallu(*inations, but in dogs
th(‘ (‘fleet is as if th(‘ animal ex]K‘rien(‘es hallueinalions of a
friglihaiing <»r terrifying nature .* Hashish, or Indian liemp,
may also produee hallueiiiations in som(‘ individuals ; P(‘rsian
dervishes ar(‘ known to use it. On<‘ of lh(‘ most efleetive^
hallueination-produeing drugs is that ustd by the Indians of
Columbia, C'entral America, whhdi goe s by ihe name of Yag(i
and which rc‘sults in a stati* of strong delirium. The nativ(*s
believe in its clairvoyant ellicaey and often r(‘sort to it when
wishing to trace thieves or lost articl(‘S.

All th(* world over we* find varieties of d(‘adly nightshade
of whi(*li the h aNcs, roots of flowaTs are us(‘d to indue(^
slates of eonsei()usn(‘ss conducive to hallueinalions. It w^as
the deadly niglitshade, dryly narmxl belladonna- “ fair
lady ” by aleliemists, which m(‘dieval witches us(‘d for
inducing hallucinations. Such hallucinations fr(‘(}uently
tak<‘ on a sexual ton(‘. Large doses of th(‘ drug are liable to
result in irn‘sponsible sexual txdiaviour, a fa(‘t whieh gave it
a gr(‘at reputation as an ingnxlient in iiK'dieval lov(‘ fiotions.
It is interesting to note, howevor, that atropine, the main
a(‘1ivating substance in belladonna, product's a (^aiming effect
on fiabitual drunkards after a drunken sl(‘ep.'

Th(‘ li(juid ololuiqui, mentioned above, is produe(*d from
th(‘ se(‘ds of datura nieUioidcs^ a plant which belongs to the
same family as tlu* deadly nightshade the solanaei^ae.
01olui(]ui was the fore-runner of the* modern “ truth drugs.”

* Ilcssr, K., AVm*o//r.v mu! Dnti* .UldicUoii^ p. 107, N.Y., 1048.

• ilmt, pp. 111-112.

‘ ibid., p. 104.

107

Li

AUKAS ”

The beverage j^rixiucres a pleasurable traiiei -Iike state and in
this condition skilful questioning can elicit any infonuation
from the intoxicated person, a feature which is oftcMi found
useful in native t)usiness transactions.

A large variety of luodern drugs (ran l)(‘ userl to produeir
visual hallucinations. Although their significance in r(‘-
lation to occult b(‘li(‘fs and j>raeti(*(\s is nil, mention may b(‘
made (d' the drug imacdlitte. Tutil rece ntly, this drug was
obtaiiKxl only from a spiiu'less ea(*tus which grows in north
and central Mexico, known to th(‘ natives as pevotl. It has
now been made synthetically in the U.S.A. 'llie liallueina-
tions resulting from m(*scaline may last for hours, and
kaleidos(*opie hallucinations in gorgeous (*olours are s(ren.
Th(‘ intiTweaving patterns of mosaics, landscape's, sci-nery
and objects may present tlu' subject Avith a jumbU'd, l)rillia,i]t
and ever changing tape'stry wlu'never h(‘ el(»ses l\is e ye's. It
is little wonder that the superstitious nativirs Ix'lieved jxyotl
to be the* gift of the' gods and to be a means of aehievifig
clairvoyant powers.

VeTtigo and nausea ge'uerally pn'C'C'de' or follow the hal¬
lucinations pnaluced by nu'scaliiK', at hast among western
pcnqik's. De'spite this, tlu're st'cins to ber a growing tendeau'V
few this drug, which is not habit forming to become a vog\je.
The hallucinations hav(* a similarity to those* reported by
people who have (‘xjxTie'need livpnagogie hallucinaliofis.

Aukas

In the literature of spiritualism, theosophy and j)sychieal
rese'areh one may find rre‘c|uent r(‘ference to auras. ’
Snell auras may take a variety of forms, from ednailar hahx's
purportc'dly seen round the lu'ads of individuals with a rcfiu-
tation for holiness of pie ty, to fulgent iridiscenee s of bright
colours which s(‘nsitiv(‘s are re}X)rtod to seo as emanating
from oth(*r persons or animals e^r even inanimate objects,
particularly inagiu'ts. Optical illusions, after-images, hys¬
terical hallucination, delusions, suggestion, wishful-thinking,
trickery and invention are the soh* I'xplanations of aureole!
phenomena in the case of sane individuals. Among

lOS

Tin: PsYc noLCH'.Y or the OcriTi/r

psychot ics, as 1)0 ox}>ooto(l, (U‘lusi()ns and halluoinaiions

of auras are not jmcoininoii.

Exporiinonts witJi liystorioal subjects who claim to perc(‘ive
auras (juickly rcv(‘al their spurious chara(‘ttT. Praid lueu-
tions one sucii subjt'cl, who whcnevv‘r the id('a was suypcsted,
saw coruscation Manus cmanatinn IVom the ])olos ota inan*H*1
or whcn*\ i*r she imagined il > influcncr to extend. Sucli cas(‘s
were frecpuaitly reported in ttu* ])sycholonical literature of the
ninelccth century. .Experiments showed, howevca*. that the
same eilects won' produced wlu n non-nu tallic objects,
disnmsed as manm ts, were used.

Dr. AN . (i. KilnerofSi. Thomas' Hospital. London, caused
a n<^nd deal of speculation wlu n he (*laimed to b(‘ abl(‘ to see
a semi-luminous aura surroundinn th(‘ bodies of his patients,
w'hicli showed marked colour change's accordinn to the state
of the j)atient's h(‘alth. II(‘ used a specially mad(‘ trans|)ar(‘nt
dicyanin senen for the purpose*. ()th(‘r j)hysicians t(‘sted the

Kilner sericn * but di(l not observe anythinn unusual.
One investinator writinn in the Hritish Medieal Journar
made it clear that in most casts the illusion of tlu* human
aura '* could n^auM'ally be attributed to after image effects
when witli the nakt'd ('ve, Imt that it was purely sub-
jfu’tive when seen throunh tlu* Kilner serecfi.

AVakninc; 11 via.rciN a’I io\s

I'here are instances reported from tinu* to tinu* of sane
individuals wlio lia\e (*\perienced hallu(‘inatory voices or
visions wliieh liave warn(*d them of approaehinn danger,
forecast an iiliu ss. prcdict(‘d an event, or directed a course of
action. Blculcr has called thest* ideological hallucinations^
a ttrm whicli is somewhat mi satisfactory sinct* it imparts a
metaphysical flavour to what should be rcf^ardcd as ])rimarily
th(‘ (‘onc(*rii of medical psycholofxy. A teleological halluciim-
tion is OIK* wliicli appears prima facie to serve* some* purpose
or design. Such hallucinations do not reepiire a theory of
supernatural causes for th(‘ir exjdanation, though spiritua¬
lists and otliers still argue to th(‘ contrary.

There* are many ways in which tales of tiMeologieal hal¬
lucinations may arise. The great majorit\' come under the

\Va 1%N1'S(; IlAM.rc iXATIONS 1 01)

general lic^acling of the psyeliology of self-(l(‘e<‘|)ti<»n and
wishful*thinking, a sul)je(*t which will he dealt with in another
ehapier. Then* are. however, many i]istane(*s of liallueina-
tions and dreams whieli were elearly related to subsequent
events. Sueli, for (‘xample. is the )>ro(]ro?}ial hallueinatiou
or drenm. in whiel) ])i<‘niohi!ion of unsus})(H*ted ilha'ss or
<lis(*as(‘ is iri\'( II lo 111.* '-ifhjt'ei ; lie may, for example. !»<•
subeonseiously aware* of ee rtain mild syinptoms but unwilling
for various I'easons to recognise* tluan for what tlie\ are till
a dream or an audilo?‘y hailu(*ination briiigs liis sup})rt‘ss(‘d
suspicions to Ids attention.

Prodromal symjdoms, such as unusual lassitude, obscure
pain or ]>ruritus. might result, in tlu* east* of a hysterieal
patient, in an autoseopic hallueijiation of s(‘eing himself ill
in a hospital ward. Siibscajiiently eaneer or some other
disease dev(‘loi)s and the [uitient can then claim that he had
warning of Ids diseas(- '' tbrcmgh a \ ision winch he will
<ioubt)ess attribut(‘ to oeenlt or divine origin, llallueinations
showing a r(*lativ(* lying ill <»r dead were eominonly re|)ort(‘d
in the idneteenth-ec'iitury literature of psyehieal res(‘areh
and, in tin* few eases whieh were jv>ssibly auihentie and
veridieah may lie attributed to pre vious impressions ed‘ the
relative’s state* e)l‘ health.

Coineidemial halliieinatie>ns whie*h ))urjK)rtedly oeeurred at
the same time that a distant relatix e or lrie*nd di(*d are open
to a great number of suspicious. Xo <*asc of suedi a cemv
eid(*nce has yet be*en reasonably proveel.

Hallucinations, like dreams, may, naturally euougli,
suggest a eourse of action to the* subjoet. lie may ignore this
factor and rctrospee*tively believe that his dre*am or hallu(*iria-
tion '‘prophesied'’ his subsequent actions. Again, eireum-
stanee's of whie*h the' siil)j(*et is aware, perhaps sub(*ons(*ie)usly,
may rationally dictate a pre)bable seejuence of events ; a
dream or halhieination occurs embodying erne or me>r(* e*vents
in the sequence*, and the subject may eH)nsee]uently believe
that he experienced a forewarning by supernatural means.

Generally speaking, })e»pular reports of teleH>logieal sensory
hallucinatie)ns e)ecurring in sane and healthy individuals
must be accepted with the utmost reserve, although they
may undoubtedly occur in certain types of hysteria, in in¬
cipient or borderline eases of psychosis, or in any proven case

no

Tm. rsvciioi.cKiY or tiik Occn.T

of int( riuitt(*nt Iialluciiiosis wliatevc r its causo. (Jenuiae
sonsorv halliu*iiiations ariioiifr the sane* and healthy are a
^reat rarity. On tli(‘ other hand scaisory illusions, dreams,
|)seudo-hallneinati(»ns and vagaries of memory may heeome
so easily transinogriru'd into hallnein;\ti(M\s by those who are
looking for th(Mn !

PtThaps the least siispieUais type of rc]K)rl is tliat in whieh
t}i(‘ sid)j(‘et appanntly experi<‘nees a sensory hallueination
- giru‘rally a voie(‘ warning him of immediate danger,
sneii as a (l(*ep hole \i\ Jiis j)ath at night or tlu* proximity of an
1‘nemy or wild Ix^asl. l)ang(T and fear, we know, can result
in drastic physiological (‘hanges in tlu? human organism.
Therefon* it is (|uit(‘ possible to believ(‘ that with some
individuals a snhcotiscious awareness of danger could result
in an auditory or visual hallueination if tli(‘ danger was
extnane, and that by tliis devi<*e th(‘ individual in (|nesti<m
could he made conscious of his peril. AnotluT explanation,
however, is that lh(‘ sudden coH^sciousNCSs of danger (‘vokes a
surge of fear and a e(>nse<|ueut hallueination or pseudo-
hallueination, the* actual sec[U(*nee of the (‘vents b(‘ing
subsetpn nlly confused when later recalled to nu tuory.

Subeonsv'ious ratiocination is a fact be'vond dispute.
Many a diftienlt probl(*m is solved by merely ‘‘ slee'ping on
it." There is some* evide*nee to show that in individuals
who have he‘en sul)jeet to hysterical hallucinations sub-
eonseious ratiocination may dominate the* fejrm or content of
the hallucinations. The hallueinalorv voices of Joan of
Are, which advised her conce rning lie r future* course of action
and (‘stimated the course* of events with fair accuracy,
provide a historical (*xainpl(* of this phe*MonK*?ion ; so does the
(luernon voice of Socrates, w'Jio {K)ssess(‘d marked tendencies
to dissociation. The teleological character of many dreams,
and also, we* may suppose, of some hallucinations, may often
be attribut(*d to subconscious ratiocination in one form or
anoth(*r. Ilallucinatory voices which give helpful advi(?c
appi*ar to be* related almost invariably to long-standing
difheultie's in the patient’s life or to problems of aeijustment.
In borderline eases of psychosis such t(*l(*(»logieal hallueina-
tions do not appear to be* altogether uncommon.

In the literature of the* Society for Psychical Research
during the nineteenth century, reports aj)peared frequently

(V)iJ,KCTIVK Hai .LUCINATIONS

111

of tcleolofyical and coinridcntal veridical hallucinations by
sane and healthy individuals. It is a trilnitc to the inereas-
ingly critical standards of the Society’s investigators that
such reports an* at present a rarity. Su(?h tal(*s arc* now
eoidincd mainly to the spiritualist jo\irnals, whose artful
editors view wi’h scorn the celebrated princij)Ie of Occam.

(\)I.Li:(TTVK irALLITCrNATTONS

There is consid(*rabl(* e\ idcncH* to show that among ])rimi-
tivc peoples sensory hallucinations may be indu(*cd simply
by the power of suggestioru particularly if the subject is under
strong (*motiona! stress, such as fear or intense anxiety.
The mind may th(*Fi Iu'chiuk* highly suggestible, and it is
during such times that auto-suggestion, op(*rating in the form
of eitpectanry, juay lead to the occurrence of hallucinations.

Expcctamy, it is w(*ll known, is responsible Tor the* majority
of oj)tieal illusion^}. Th<* individual who is waiting impa¬
tiently for a bus strains his eyes to read the distant muuber
on the front as one apj)roacli(*s, and sees that it is No. 17 the
one for which he is waiting. As it approache s, he sec s that
it is No. 24 and wonders wJiy on earth he misread it so
completely. This is a very common form of optical illusion.

Expectancy, however, which leads to a genuine visual
halliHunation is altogether a different matter. Extreme
fright on hearing a noise might, in tlu* case of a siij^erstitious
and simple minded person of a cciitury ago, have resulted in
a genuine visual hallucination of the* v(‘rv object which he
imagined had caus(*d the noise—pcrha[)s a phantom appari¬
tion of some kind. Extreme fear may produce* S(‘rious
physiological reactions an*ecting the whole ruTvous system
and circulation, and such physiological change s may produce
effects on the brain analogous to delirium or insanity.
Such extremes of emotion, howewer, were* seldom present in
all the best known cases collc'ctive hallucination during the
past e*cntury.

Collective hallucination is a subje^et which has not been
adeejuately studied. Literally scores of cases have been
recorded and investigated by individuals well qualified to

112

The Psy( holocjy of the Occ ui/r

judge in other fields, yet iiu^dical pss ehology as si whole hsis
eontibuted little to the probh^ni.

A eentiiry sigo Ihe iimss of the world's ))opulsitioii were
far nior(‘ credulous, superstitious sind vulnerable to the
effects of suggestion tluui they are today. Many generalisa¬
tions and eonc*lusions of psychologists and psychiatrists to¬
day are fully apjjlicabW' only to a rdativc'ly small part, of the
wwld’s r(‘sent population that part eonfin{‘d to Kuroix*,
tlie Dominioi^s. the United States and th(‘ upper and middle
classes in the other eountri(‘s of thv world. Even in {>arts of
Europ(‘, in Sieily for example, the })easant mind is not very
far removed froju the minds of his [uasant ancestors who
lived (‘('iituries ago. When psychiatrists (ju(‘Stion whether
in fact hallucinations can be induced by suggestion alone, it
must not be forgotten that such viewf)oint.s are bas(*d upon
studies of the relatively non-suggestible inhabitants of eivilis<‘d
(ountries. Thanatomania (anthropological), or dc^ath due
to suggestion alone, bears witness to the extreme cffecds on
the mind of primitive man exerciseablt! by suggestion.

The individual in a crowd n^verts more to th(‘ f)rimitivc
than when he is alone. In a (Towd the individual can become
transformed into a savage as far as his thinking }>r<K.‘(‘Sses
are concerned. Anyone who has ever heard the baying of
the erow'd at one of Hitler’s rallies before the w^ar, or even
observT'd the reaetions of a erow^d at an Ameriean football
game, can witness this for himself. Th(‘ emotional hysteria
which sweeps through a crowd, and the wildfin' spread of
absurd rumours wdiieh may become' c xaggcrat(*d out of all
proportion within a few^ moments, ant but two example's of
the mutually reinforcing and reciprocal action of suggestion.
Such forms of suggestion are seen at their most potent during
times of religious fervour. It is not surprising therefore, to
find that many talcs of collective hallucinations occur in
connection with churches or sacred statues and paintings.

One of the most frequent types of miracle ” reported is
that of statues or painted portraits which have* moved, even
to the extent of stepping off the pedestal or out of their
frames. Such stories have often been put down to mere
fabrication or groundless superstition. But as Rosett has
expressed it:

('oUJiCTIVli IIa1.I.UCTXATK)XS

113

Tlic reports of inysties iiiid of devotees about pictures an<i statues
which moved and spoke like livirif^ persons and performed miracles
are . , . not iittcessarily fraudulent.. An understandinir of Uk^ meciian-
ism of attention and its relation to the state of falling asleep, and of
the halhieinations assenriated v.ith that state*, offers a rational ex¬
planation of such reports.” »

When* belief in ininiel(‘s exist.s, evidence* will always be
fortheoiiiin^ to eonfirru its exisienee. In the* ease* of moving
statues and paintings, the* be*li(*f j)rodu(‘es the* liallue^ination
and the hallueination eoritinns the belii f. The same factors
Avhieli ()p(*rate for a single irjdividual in tlie induelioii t)f
halliieinations or [)seudo-liallu(anations may Ixc'onu* (‘ven
more efleetivt* in an (*xeiti*d or (*xp(‘etant erow’d, and on
oeeasion may result in mass hallueinaticjns. This is not to
.say that any two peo[)l(‘ are eapabk* of ha\ ing pr(‘eis(‘ly the*
same hallueinatiori id('nti(*al in ev(*rv rt*sp(‘(*l. Hut similar
preeoneeptions and (‘Xj)eetations ean midoubt(‘dly rt'suli in
hallueinatory visions so alike that subseejnerd. eomparisons
would not dis<‘l()se any ma jor diser(^f)arH*y. Ka(*h individnaPs
iinaginatiofi ncecssarily makes its own partieiilar (*ontribu-
tion to th(? form and movement of eaeh hallueination -for
hallueinatory sensations of all types arc* the produ(*t of tli(*
individuars own mind. Accounts of eomparatively dis¬
similar hallueinatory experiences often attain a spurious
similarity by a ])roeess of harmonisation in subsequent
reeolleetion and eonv(*rsation.

In 11 ) 19 , at Limpias, Santander, in S[)ain, there* oecurr(‘d
numerous eases of eolh*etiv(' halhieination. Some of tliise*
wen* investigated t)V Prof(‘ssor A, Kiieinas of Santander
University. Kneinas approa.(*h(‘d Professor .lac‘ns(*h in regard
to these phenomena and together they came to the significant
eoneliision that tiu^ hallueinations had tlu*ir basis in the
vagaries of eidc*tie iniagerA^

The halhieinations in (piestioii were nniarkahh* for their
liniit(*d variety. They were eoneerned almost entirely with
pi(d.ures of saints. The saints had moved and carried out
various aeiioiis, ineluding stepping out of their pa nels. Tlu ir
(^yes also were obse rved to move and certain of tlie pictures

* Roseti, .1,, The Mechamsm of Thought, I mo fiery mul Ifallucionfion,
pp. 211-21*2, N.Y. 1S):5!).

114.

TllK RSYC HOLOdY OF TIIF Oct'lM/i’

appeared to drip blood. Naturally, when such reports
spread, people for miles around flock(‘d to the eliurch where
the “ miracl(\s ” were taking place and stood gazing by th(‘
hour at the pictures. Jaenseh writes that hmidrcMls of
sworn statements, including those of many educated and
professional persons, bon^ witness to the r(*ality of tin*
hallueinations.

The halhieinatorv “ epidemic ” lasted for many days. In
such eases the scenes inside the church are of interest. Th(‘
audience gazes at the ])ietures and from tinu' to time someone
will point a linger and cry out that th(‘ eyes are moving or
that a drop of blood lias appi^ared and is running down tlu*
saint’vS face. Others look ('agerly and add ttu ir own ex¬
clamations and confirmations ; otIuTs fail to observe anj -
thing unusual.

Similar “miracles” occurred at Campocavallo in 1SP;3,
and at Rimini on five separate occasions between 1850 and
1905 ; hcr(‘ the oy<‘S of tlu; paintings W(‘r(‘ observ^(*d to rnc^ve
and to shed an occasional tear. In 1870 at Soriano, Calabria,
occurred the celebratx'd miracles of the moving statui^ which
appeared to move its hand and arm.

There is no doubt about these “miracles” being eollee-
tive visual hallucinatkms of otu‘ type or another. Through¬
out liistory we hear of tlumi—fiery crosses in the sky being
a great favoiiriti*. Accounts by eyewitnc‘sses who fail to
observe anything out of the ordinary are of peculiar interest,
for they see everyone around them straining their eyes and
pointing ex(*itedly towards nothing in particular with ex¬
clamations of wonder, frequently falling on their knees to
give thanks for being vouchsafed such a “ blt‘ss(‘d sight.”

While many of these individuals may experience a hallu¬
cination— probably eidetiir in (character—or compelling
illusion, it is difficult to believe that all of them do ; most of
them have probably persuaded thernselvi's that they have
seen the “ miraekis ” ; with simple people this type of
reaction is very common. Rather than admit they failed
to see anything, they would imitate the lead given by those
who did, and subsequently believe that they had in fact
observed what they had originally only pretended to observe :

Autoscopk: TIaij.xicinations

115

“ Emotion is a preat disturl)er of evidence. It confuses both the
original observation and the memory of it. (Certain details impress
themselves vividly, wJiiU^ others, and the relations between tliem, are
obscured. Memory will start witii these characters, acjcentuate tliem,
and thus a false colouring is given to the whf^le. Under very intense
emotion mem(»ry may fail us altogether. Tiie presem^e of a crowd
oftc^n increases tJie bystander’s disturbance. Emotion is heightened
by being shar(‘d, excitement with its attendant confusion is intensi-
tied, and chanctr words given an impetus to imagination. ‘ Jlid you
sec him skid ? ' says one, in a tone of perfect conviction, and others,
who did not, promjdly picture it, and at a lat.er date cannot be con-
vimied tliat they did not see it. In some erases a eollective hallucina¬
tion is built up ])iecemeal in this way.” *

In most instances of collective hallucination or illusion the
main contributing factor must be sought in the emotional
cxcitenu^nt at the time of its occurrence. There is a well-
known case to illustrate this from the last century. The
crew of a Vi\ssel were one evening frighteiu^d by what they
took to be the ghost of a cook who had died some days
previously.

JI(‘ was distinctly seen by all, walking on the water with a peculiar
limp which had characterised him, one of his legs being shorter than
the i>ther. The cook, wlio had been recognised by so many, turned
out to be a piece of wreck, rocked up and down by the waves.” •

Tliis example well illustrates tlie maimer in which many
stories of ghostly apparitions receive their genesis.

Autoscopic IIalujctnatioxs—Doppfolgangers and
“ OiTT-oF-TiiE UoDV ” Experiences

The tradition of the “ human double ” reaches back to the
earliest days of the ancient Egyptians. In the Victorian era
of romantic literature “ doubles ” or doppclgangers took on
a variety of roles, some of them of the guardian-angel type,
others sinister and diabolical. In these stories the hero or

• Wolters, A. W. P., 2"he Evidence of our Semes, p. 64.

• Parish, E., Hallucinations and Illusions, p. 311.

ll(> Tiu: Psychology of tuk Occult

the villain came ffiee to face with an exact replica of himself.
This other selfwas often represented as his soul or his

destiny and often appeared to him as a premonition of
impending doom.

Another variation on the same theme is that of “ out-of-thc
body ” experiences, a fre(|ijent subject of psychical research.
Authentic accounts of such experiences arc comparatively
numerous, and the autJiors of these^ a(‘COunts, amazed at a
ph('noin(*non altogether out of their ken, almost always
prcs(‘nt ihem with a mystical twist, often concluding that
their souls have for a brief time h'ft their bodies. In auto-
scopi(‘ hallucinations of this type the experient often has the
vivid sensation of looking at iiis own body from a point
exterior to it. Favourite times for such occurninecs an* at
the crisis of a severe illness, during moments of extreme
suffering- the sul)jcct’s pain them aj)pears to leave* him or
while under an ana(*sthetic.

Reports frcqu(*ntly mention the subje(*t’s sensation of float¬
ing in tlic air o\'cr his own body ; a hiding of ealrn detach¬
ment usually accompanies these experiences. Patients
claim to have witncss(*d their own surgical operations
during sueh iirucs. In v(irv many eases tlie patient is re¬
ported as being, to ail itdents and purposes, in a state of
total unconsciousness.

The average* person, wdien confronted with stories of the

human double ” and ‘‘ out-of-thc body ” exp(*riences will
be inclin(*d to strict disbelief and attribute the whole account
to an over-stimulated imagination. Nothing could be
furtlur from the truth. Both these w(*ird experiences find
a common basis in the visual liallucination and analogous
j:>henomei\a, though it must be admitted that the reason
why such hallucinations take the form th(*y do is not clear.
Their impact on the imagination of ignorant or sui)(*rst itious
people, however, <uin wM be imagined.

Until comparatively modern iiriKjs almost any form of
hallucination was attributed to the operation of occult
powers, and today autoscopic liallucunations provide an
excellent example of the type of phenomenon investigated by
psychical n^seareli. Psychical researchers arc attracted
to such experiences by the occult significance which they
believe they might possess; the devotees of this pseudo-

AiTTosropic Hallucinations 117

science have seldom been interested in hallucinations for
their own sake but only for their supposed connection
with the supernatural or the paranormal.” Such an
attitude is reminiscent of the supernatural awe with which
our not, so remote ancestors regarded most forms of }>syeho-
logical anoruoly.

Ih privcd of tluur halo of diablerie or enehantment, auto-
seojuc* hallucinations may be r(‘gard(*(I more prosaically
as psychological aberrations mainly dm^ to delirium or
hysteria.. They may appear in the most irrelevTint fashion.
Jung, for example, reports a ease of a lady, subjeet to hyster¬
ical (lissoeiation, who had to hav(* a splintcT cut out of her
finger. She mav hav(^ drifted into an auto-hvpnotie state
for

witlinul. any kind of l)i>dily oluinge she suddcaily saw herself
sit tini( t)y tJie side of a brook in a beautiful iin adow, plucking (lowers
'riiis (roiKlition lastcMl as long as the slight operation and then disap-
pi‘ared spontaneously.” *

III such autoscopie haIlu(*inations as the omj just described
the subject is fully (conscious of himself as lie is ; there* is
no loss of eonseiousn(‘ss of self. He simply '' sees ” a fac¬
simile of himself standing or sitting nearby. Usually these
hallucinations ari* of short iluration ; in other eas(‘s they
appear to last a coiisiderable Uaigth of time. Y(*t the time
factor is difficult txi estimate, for with some types of visual
hallucinations—such as those indue(*d by taking the drug
mescaline for example* -the time s(*nse largely disappears
and what appears to take an hour may in fact have last(*d
only a few minutes.

Ill the out-of'th(*-body type of autoscopie hallucin¬
ation - an experience eultivat(*d by some mystics and
divines and referred to as eksUisis by Plotinus -e()nsci()usn(*ss
of self assumes a peculiar form. Instead of the subjeet
retaining awareness of himself as he normally (*xists, i.e.
with his sense of s(*lf inseparable from his body and its
sensations, he secs an hallucinatory image of himself and
simultaneously experiences the vivid delusion that this
hallueinaU)ry image is in fact his real self! The hallucin-

* dung, U., Collected Papers on Awdylical Psycholo^ij, p. 75.

118

The Psychology of thk Occult

ation and its accoin})aiiyiHg subjective delusion appear to
be soiuething like a dream in this respect, for in dreams it
is not an uncommon experience to see oneself as if from a
de'tachcd vantage })oint. The dr(\am cliaraeteristics of
out-of-the-body ” hallucinations are further ri'marked
when it is reealk'd that most of them liave l>een re'ported
as occurring while the subject was outwardly un(‘onseious.
This again may be an error, and it is more than probable
that all such antoscoj^ie hallucinations as the'se occur at
the mcmient of suceaimbing to uneonseioiisness or during
re^covery from it; no rcliaime wliatsocN'cr can be pla(‘(‘d on
the subject’s own estimation of the monu^nt or duration
of his exj)eriene(‘.

There are a number of theories purporting to account for
the pc'culiar nature of autoscopic hallucinations, l)ut none
of them are fully satisfactory. Tluy poss(‘ss, without
doubt, more than out* aetiology. A{)art from Iiysteria.
the main direct cause appears to bt^ a shock of one sort
or anotluT to the brain and nervous system.

It has been suggested that the eIiara(*UTisti(*s of many
autoscopic liallueinatious may (>e dm* to (*()eua(*sihetic
sensations. Apart from j)(*reeptions originating from the
fiv(‘ special sc*ns(*s, there art* other bodily sensations wliich
reaeli th(* brain through th(‘ sympatlietie n(*rvous system,
viz, those seusatious whiclu roughly speaking, imlieate to
us our state of liealth and jdivsieal conclitiou. The visetTal,
itiuseular, glandular and nervous aetivitit's of our body
are registered in varying dtrgrce upon our const'iousness by
s(‘nsati()ns of physical wt* 1I being, unc*asiness, jihysieal
altTtm ss, tiredness, and all those other vagm*, often iindcv
finable sensations, whi(*h havt* bc‘(‘n termc'd roe ho esthetic.
The sinking fet'ling in the ])it. of the stomach wliieh llu* un¬
practised orator ex{)erienc*,es b(*fore he* embarks on a public
speech is an (*xe(*llent example of localis(‘d eo(*naesth(‘sia.
It is well known that coenac*sth(‘tie impressions may givt;
rise tt) and direct the c*oiirse of on(*’s dreams ; the sjiine
may be true* in certain type's of hallueinatory phenom(‘na.

Cases have b(*en reportc'd, with no cH*rtainty of reliability
however, in which subjects sc*c hallucinatory rcpres(*ntat it>ns
of th(*ir own inttrnal organs. Sometimes the patient con-
ctTncd has j>crccivcd by inc*ans of the hallucinatory i?uagc,

Al'TOSC OrU! IIaLIAH ^NATIONS

111 )

the nature c»f tlu! eoniplaint he is suflcriiig froiu - an adhesion,
an internal uletT, congestion of the bowel and other physio¬
logical ailments.

A ease r(‘ported by Dr. (V)inar‘ is interesting in that the
pati(‘nt\ hallmnnatorv image aeeuralely re])res(‘nte(l foreign
mattcT irritating and inflaming tlie transv(TS(' colon. The
patient’s hallneinalions. which w^en^ of fre^juent occurrence,
followed subs(*quent developments within tlu‘ colon until
recovery was eomplcMe. Naturally iu such eas(‘s the fju<‘S-
tions to be r(‘solved are whetlnr tlie hallucinations in fact
occurred at all ; wh(*ther th(‘ patient’s knowl(‘dge of the
cause of the malady was gained by a highly discriminating
faeulty of the (*oena(‘sth(‘tie sense presented to her con-
seiousiK'ss via liallueinaiioiis; or wliethcT Ihe content of
the halliieinations, if they occnrri‘(L was influ(*ne(*(l by
involuntary eu(‘s provided by tlu* medical attendant.

To return to "" ont-of>the-body ” antoseo[)ie hallucin¬
ations, tlu‘ san(*st individual may i)e temi)ted to (hid

scmielhing savouring of mysti(*ism in Iht'se e\])evie))ees,
()n(‘ of tlieir Jiiost extraordinary featnrtvs is thi* way in which
it sometimes aj)|)(‘ars to th(‘ su).)jeet as if his own (‘go ”
has been transplanted to a location outside his body, from
which \'antag(‘ ])()int h(' scaans to sen* his body lying or moving
lx low him. Ilis ego often retains l)()th th(? distanee-
S( !\s(‘s of sight and h(*aring, though the lattcTis less (xanmiMily
iV |)(jrted tliaii the other.

'rypieal of such experiet\ees is that of the tank olfieer
wle;s(‘ vehicle was blown up by a rniiu' and who vvas flung
over a hedge into an adjoining fi(‘ld. lie became sudchaily
(conscious of lloaling in Ihe air, from whieli point he saw
his body lyii5g injnraal, motionless and dishevelkal below
him. This hallneinalion may, as in vctv many otlua' eases,
liave Ixa n a vivid dnain. On the (dher hand, it may liave
b(‘(*n a hallneination experienced during th(‘ return to eon-
seiousness. Tlu* sensation of floating in tlie air was probably
a direct r(‘snlt of liis expcTuaiee of being blown ovct the
hedge an episode, liow(‘VtT, which h(‘ was subs(‘(|U(‘ntly
unal)l(‘ to r(‘eolle(*t. The vision of liis wound(‘d body may
hav(‘ b(‘en j^romptcxl by the r(‘alisatioii of what had hap])ened

* lifViic NvnroUigiqiic, \’ol. a, 1901, j>p. 190 4*!>5.

V20

Tin: PsYCuoi.ooY of tiik Oc t in/r

to him, or it may have been brought about by his bodily
sensations during tlie process of reeovcTing consciousness.

Under certain forms of shock, dreams may easily become
such vivid (^xjxTicnec's as to combine many of the character-
isties of a genuine waking hallueinatiou. The dilferenee
betwet n dn^ams and hallucinations is largely one of degree :
whether or not tlaw are brought about by the sanu* meehan-
ism, lh(‘y an* certainly closely related. Many cases have
been n jioritd wJiere a figure or an objt^et in a, dream has
been pn)l()nged into a vivid waking liallueination lasting
several seconds al’ttT the dnamer has opened his (yes.

The vast majority of Ui(‘ hallucinations in which it seems
to th(‘ subject that lu' has actually lett his own body are
fouiul among j)syehoties. Only a small jiroportion of sucli

extra-eorport alhallmanations art‘ autos(*opie, howev(*r,
i.(‘. the visions wliieh the* subject e\p(‘riene(‘s do not usually
include tlie illusion of s(‘(‘ing himself, 'fhis applies ecpially
to " (‘Xtra-eorporeal '' ex])eri(‘n(‘(‘s of tli(‘ hysteric? or psyclias-
th(‘iiie. Th(‘ aiiloseopic* hallucination is me rely an unusual
rnanilV\station of extra-corpor(‘al hallucinations and
delusions in general. Often the subjexd. experience's the
hallucination of Ix'ing drawn away from his Ixxly ; he l(iive*s
it behind on tlie (‘arth while he rapturously lloat-s in starry
reidms. listens to the music of the sj)h(‘r(‘s, se(‘s the sphere/s
themselves in Ix'autiful colours, eonve*rses with spirits,
angels and eveii (hxl liimself.

Opposite lyjx's of hallucination may also occur, of ex)urse,
in which the* patient desceaids into hell, is tornumteil by
imps and de vils and meets the Devil in person. It is not
only among the insane' that such types of hallucinations
occur. Hysterical individuals may also sullV'r the* same
symptoms. The analogous visions which the brilliant
e*ightc(‘nth century scientist and philosopher Kmanue*!
Swedenborg experienced in later life were* due cither to
lijsteria or to incijiient jiaraiioia. Flournoy's Mile. Smith
was a case in point.

P.sychasthe*ni(r patients (i.e. patients suflering from certain
of a wide range* of psyehoiieurose*s not (‘lassifiable under
the lie adiiig of hysteria) ofte*n (‘xpcrience feelings of unre?ality,
loss of jx rsonality and d(.*lusions. Although hallucinations
do not gene rally occur in case's of ordinary psyerhasthenia^

Aitt()S(’()PK‘ IIalli/cinations

121

ct('lusions of tlio “ double self ” not infrequently do. ‘‘ Feel¬
ings of unreality, depe rsonalization, and inad(‘(juaey always
present rather eonedusive (‘videnee of a psyeliastlicnie
ce)n(lition. Sueh a patient will usually deseribe his feelings
somewhat as follows :

** Tli<*Pt‘ is a feeling of about tilings ; altJioiij;Jj 1 recognize*

my (‘ustornary surrourifliiiirs. npvrrtle\U*ss is a fcclinj? of strange-

ii<*ss associated AvitJi them, they just don’t a])|)(‘ar naiiral, ()ftf‘n
wJu'H I wakt‘ u|> or wlien I eona* in froni flie street my room a])pears
siranoe; T see my etiair and bed, know U»ey are niiiK', ami yet it
s#‘('ms ttiat 1 am seeing tJa'in for tlie first t ime. Also there frc‘(|nentl>
set*ms to be two of me iiist(‘ad of one ; 1 seem to be standing off
lo(»kin^ at myself, wiit<‘liiii;i and eonjecdurini* about everytliinj; 1 do.
At times I aetiially b(*eom(‘ t inbarrassed, so strongly do I feel tliat 1
am in iJie [)res(‘iie(‘ of a slraiii((*r who, howeve r, is somt liow a part of
im‘, Kinallv, 1 an frecjm'nlly distressed hy a ])e(*uliMr feeline that
soim tliiny al»out m^ is rnissine, that I have lost a j)art <»f myself,
that 1 am incomplete.’* -

It is rnsy t(» iinnginc the form hallueinations might take
if a psyehastlienie patient sulTerliig from sensations of
depersonalisation were to beeome hallueinaled as a result
of a deterioration iti his e(»ndition. A large proportion
of his hallueinations would lu‘ of the autoseopie, out-of-
the body type.

Sonsalions of dcper’sonalisation may Ix^eoine so ('xtreme
tlial th(‘ |)s\chasthenie loses toueh with reality. The
term arcnrsfhrsia has been giv(*n to designate sueh states,
the (‘hiif eharaeteristic Ixaiig that the patient feels that
he has no material body. This symptom is sonudimes
found in (‘crlain lyjxs of paranoia.

The advoeat(‘ of jiiysticism, oeeullism or spiritualism
will pr(‘fer to rejeel the normal psyehologieal explanation
of autoseopie hallueinalious in favour of his own primitive*
theories. He will j)oint to the wealth of rcalistie detail
pertaining to the hallueinal<»ry sceiK‘ in whi(*h the subjeet's
own body was the eentral foeus of attention. The patient
who has had the experiemee of ap})arently witnessing an
operation on liis owai body, for cxani})le, is not easily per-

* Fisher, V. F. Introduction to Abnormal Psifcholn/ii/, |)p.

V22

Thk Psyc‘hol<h;y of thf OccFi/r

suaded tluit it was of a hallucinatory character, that it
was a vivid drcani, or the product of delirium. He will
simply assert that he saw himself lying on the operating
table with eyes closed and that he watched the wliole process
of the operation, noting the a(‘tions and even the sjxTch of
the attendant doctors and nurses as if he had been floating
t(ai or twiaity h c^t above* tla* seem*, lie may even feel that
the psychologist’s (xplaiiation is more improbable tlian
his own, which, often enough, is that his “ soul ” left his
body and observed the scene taking place at that time.
In supj)ort of liis belie f he may claim that he, the observer,
was no me re* disembodied s])irit but that he actually had
another body- another self vvhiedi had shape* anel form
but ne)ne of the actual e*harae‘te‘ristie*s e)f be)ne anel lle*sh ;
this he may call his astral be)ely.

Many such storie‘s e*e)ne‘erning aute)se*e)pie* hallue*inalie)ns
are, e)f e‘e)urse, mere fabrie-atiejiis ; others are pre)eluets e)f
memeu'v ele'Iusiems e)r elelirimtu In any event, suppe)sing
the halluehiatory e\|)e‘rie‘neH* te) have e)e‘eurreel. tJie* meme^ry
of the* e*\e‘nt is liable* te) gre)ss distorlie)!! thre)Ugh wishful
thinking, ))artieularly if the sul)j(*et j)e)sse*ss ine*linalions
te)warels spiritualism e)r thee)se)j)hv.

A fave)urite theme* e)f sueli aute)see)j)ie hallue-inatie)ns
centre's e)n critical me)me*nls e)f an illne*ss. e*.g. pneumonia.
The* patient seems te) be* watediing "‘himself” eluring the
<*risis. If the reality e)f (he* hallue*inate)ry e‘xpe‘ri»*iiee is
granted, is it peissible the* e*laim is e>rten maele -that the
scene whieli the [)atie‘nl se ems te) e)bse*rve‘ ee)ulel in fact e*orres-
pe)nel accurate ly with the* sce ne whie*h was ae^tually e>e*e*iirring
at the* time ? This is unlikedy, the)iigli the pe)ssibilily e*amie)t
be re*je‘e*te*el. (\Ttainly a Iiallueinale)ry eonstriie*t ion e)f
the* se-ene* we)ulel ne)t be* e*e)rre*e*t in e‘ve*rv eletail. Ihit in
state's e)f ele lirium anel j)artial e*e)iise‘ie)usne,‘ss, e*e)e‘nae stlie‘tie,
kinaesthelie* anel se‘nse)rv impressie)ns might wxll be* the
me*ans e)f linking the ae'lual e ve'iits te) the e'veiits pre)je*e*te*el
in the hallueiiiatie)n. He fe)re the* patient le)se‘s e*e)nse*ie)nsne*ss
he* has generally re*e*e*ive*el at l(*ast a fleeting iele‘a e‘ithe*r e)f tlxe
pe)sitie)n e)f his })e)ely e)r the eireumstanee's whie*h a1t(*nel his
]e)ss e)f ee)nseiousne*ss, wlielher the e*ause is elue te) illne\ss,
an aee'ident or surgical e)pe‘ralie>n. When elelirium is present,
or when une onseiousiuss is not so deep that all the higher

AuTOSCOrU* 11 ALUK’INA'nONS

123

corebnil centres jire eoinj)Ieicly out of action, the senses
of hearing, touch and sna il are still capable of bringing
their in(‘ssages to the patient’s brain ; the brain may then
proceed to reconstruct its inte rpretation of them into visual
and auditor)' form by means of an liallucination or vivid
dream.

In the great majority of auloscopic hallucinations, liowe^veT,
the theory of simultaneous (‘o-ordination between th(‘ actual
seeiui and its hallucinatory reconstruction is unlik(‘ly. It
is far more im)babl(‘ that the patient’s experience e^an be
attribut(‘d to a hallucination or a vivid dream which occurs
afterwards, during tlu‘ moments of r(‘cov(Ty from con¬
sciousness.

Extri'ine cold and fatigue^ can bring about trancM* slates
of consciousjuss. lindoubt(‘dly this is very often the
explanation wlierc* th(‘ subje^ct deiiies ever having lost eon-
sciousnt‘ss, and y(*t apjnared to have* observed liims(‘lf
marching or toiling under conditions of great hardship.
Many such (*as('s may Ix' regarded as unusual syndroi:i*/s
of aeenesthesia or h) steria.; it is likely that most of tlic
subjects who have actually cxfKTienci d ()ut-of-the-l)ody ”
hallucinations an* j)sy(‘hasth(‘nics or hysterics. Again,
many su(*h reported (‘xp(‘ri(aic(‘s arc ])robably due to the
delusions of imnpient ])aranoia. Then* remain, howexcT,
a number of accounts of autoscopic and aciau stlu‘l ic hallu¬
cinations by j)coj)le of outstanding ability and integrity,
which can only he ex))lained by attrilmting them h> lemj)or-
ary ctltads on the brain j^roduced by such factors as fev<‘r,
exhaustion, shock or drugs.

I)(‘lusions and hallucinations du(‘ to aef‘n(‘sthesia. or
hysteria hav(‘ undoubtedly h(*lpcd to jHapetuate the niyth
of the ‘"astral body.'’ Such cxpcTienccs inevitably gain
in the ti lling and arc ])ass(‘d on by spiritualists and others
with added elaborations : thus the subj(‘(*l.’s astral body ”
visits an old friend hundreds of mill's away and is seen and
recognised by him ; or a hallucinatory vision of a distant
relative is taken to be a visitation by the relative’s “ astral-
self ”. Such tales represent, however, only a few drops
in the great ocean of superstition and supi'rnatural l)clicf
which have their roots in the vagaries of j>sychological
anomaly.

124

TllK PsYCHOlXKiY OF TIIK Occ’Ui/r

Hypnagogic Halu cinations—‘'Faces in the Dark.”'

The phenoiHcnon of faces in the clnrk ” has never hit
th(‘ headlines of occult literature. This is surprising in
view of the extraordinary interest taken in other forms of
ha)lu(*ination and illusion. Perhaps it is h(‘eause those
who have experienced them have in th(‘ main hecai eliildren,
and. adults as is their vvay, have aserilx^d the experienet^
to mcTe fancy and imagination. Faces, patterns, scenes
and ol)j(‘eis ar(‘ seen when the eyes are closed and the mind
is either droj)])ing into sleep or recovering from it. They
are not dn^ams, for tlu' suh|(H‘l wat(‘li(‘s tlitaii while ndaining
])ossessi()n of his critical faculties.

Hypnagogic hallueinalions are comparatively rare pluaio-
inena. They an* generally exjurieneed during the half¬
way stage hot ween full waking consciousness and sleep.
It is sometimes convenient to r(‘fer to thost* hallu(*inations
which occur before falling asleep as ////p//r/gng/c, and those
which occur in the somnolent state imniediately after
awakening as hypnaponrjnr, Th(* t(*rm liyjmagogie. how(‘V(*r,
is usually employccl to cover both ty))es.

Hypnagogic hallucinations are a type* of hallucination
possessing gciu'ral feature's of their own which mark them
off from the main body of normal waking hallucinations.
TIictc is, of course, no hard and fast dividing lint' bc'twccn
hypnagogic and other types of Jiallucination ; such a ciear
cut division is scarcely to bc' (‘xpected, and tlicTc arc often
instance's whe re it is dinie*ult to elee*ide in wliieii class to place'
them. In giving a brief dc'serijhion of sue*h variegated phen¬
omena as hyjniagogic hallucinations, it is out of tlie epu'stion
to cover every aspect of the* matte*r. It is propose'd, there¬
fore*, to give only a e*omposite piedure, although it must be
rrcogni.sed that such tr(*atment possesses its limitations.

Hypnagogic* hallucinations gcnc'rally oceur in the twilight
state* wdiich is neithe*!* sleep nor full wakefulness. They
may be roughly classific'd as something bctwc'e'ii a dream
anel an ordinary liallueunation. cxe*ept that they lae*k the
variety and mov(*me*fd e)f the* former. In a dream the dream¬
er himself aj)pears to take part in th»* play of e*vcnts, but in
a hypnagogic hallucinatif)n this feature is absent. The
pere*ipie*nt wate*he*s what is being prc'scnteel to his conscious-

Uypnachhiic IIaliaktxatioxs

12,1

ness with a keen yet curiously elTortlcss interest, and generally
remains (*()mfort.ably aware of his real surroundings—a
feature wliieh is not notieeable in dreams and is often absent
in otlier tyjx's of hallucination. In all eases the percipient
retains a sulHeient degree of consciousness to be interested
in the idienonienon. Probably the nearest parallel would
be ilu‘ hallucinations induced in crystal gazing or “ scrying.”

tienuinc hypnagogur luilluciiiations are found iiiost fre¬
quently with children. Adults exj)erien(*e them with
comparative rarity, although a few individuals claim to have
had them over a period of years and even all their lives.
The literature of the subject is, naturally, mainly derived
from the experiences of adult obscTvers. The hallucin¬
ations are generally intermittent and irregular in occur¬
rence with long intiTvuls bet\v(<‘n. It is j)robable that a
considerable number ol‘ people have experi(‘nced them at
least (nice or twice in their lives, although the majority
have no remembered exptTienee of this phenomenon at
alL

Ihe actual forms the imagery takes are, generally s])eaking,
peculiar to this class of hallucination. They are often un¬
naturally clear and distiiud.. and many penupients see the
scenes and objects presented to their vision as if diffused
in a bright light or glow'. Pictures, patterns, sccm‘s and
Ihces come and go, (hanging all the while, often too rapidly
for proper attention by the intrigued observer. Some
percipients only experience quickly cvolvdng patterns and
brightly colour(‘d arabesques. Others see a continuous
series of shifting scenes as if projccU'd by magic-lantern
slides. Yet others spi'ak of views and panoramas as if
seen from a rapidly moving trains. Often r(‘ported are bodi¬
less faces shifting kaleidosco[>ically, occasionally beautiful,
sometimes ordinary, frequently grotesque and even horrible,
reminiscent of cathtHlral gargoyles. This latter feature
causes us to wonder whether or not the traditional repre¬
sentations of demons and hob-goblins of former times derived
their eharacteristics from hypnagogic hallucinations. Few
percipients, even among children, mention having been
frightened despite the ghoulisli appearance of some of
these hallucinatory faces.

Some percipients report that their hallucinations are

Tuk Psycho!xk;y ov thk Occm/r

l‘2r>

minute, the size of a small photograph or even of a stamp ;
yet all detail appears abnoriually clear. Most of the imagery
is well, sometimes magnificently, coloured, though two or
tliree (‘ases of monochromatic hallucinations have been
recorded.

Although the rapidly sliifting pictures, patterns and
se(‘nes a[)p(‘ar to be the most common forms of imagery,
this is by no means always the case. TIutc is no hard and
fast rule as to what form a hypnagogic hallucination will
take. Anything at all may, and often do(‘s, enter thi‘
hypnagogic fi(‘ld of vision and may remain for as long as a
minute or two or even longer without shifting. One per¬
cipient, for example, reported a series of moving bricks, half
gold and half black, iloating evenly in the air in a bright
glow.

The general eoneensus of opinion (h^elares emphatically
that attempts to iivfluenee the course of the imag<‘rv by exer¬
cise of the will are fruitless. Many have ( udeavoured to

create ” w'hat they wished to see, but without success.
The elVort to achieve this g('nerally rc'sults in the disappear¬
ance* of the visions, presinnably because^ the attempted
volitional eontrol brings the* p(Teipi(‘nt a stage nearer to
full aw'akening; it is an unfortunate fact that these fascin¬
ating and ent(Ttaining hallu(‘inations an* only too easily
dispelled.

The great majority of hypi^agogic piTcipie^nls witness the
hallucinatory |)h(*nonicna wliilc th(*ir eyes arc closed. Some
howe ver, arc* re portc^d as seeing thean cve‘n afteT they have
ope nc'd their eyes in the dark or half-light. Others again
claim to have experienced them with eyc\s open in full
daylight.

In re^gard to the psyehologiea) origins of the imagery
displayed there is insulfieie*ni evidenc*c to (H)nlirm any parti¬
cular opinion. Most of the* irnagcTy is unrecogniscel and
may be due to forgotten luemorievs, composite memories,
or pure imagination ; a number, on the other hand, arc
recognised as scene's with whieh the percipients had once
been familiar. The only conclusion wc can draw is the
tentative but significant one that hypnagogic imagery
seldom seems to depend upon recent events and happenings
in the percipient’s experience.

HyI»NAI;()<’.](' llALM^flNATlONS

127

It is often eljiiined iliat tlu‘ slate of heallii of the j)ereif)ient
has litiK* to do with tli(‘ eriHTjirrDcc of* liypiiayof^ic halluein-
ations in the eas(‘ of adults. Tliis is to Ih‘ doubt(;d. It is
the author's oj)ini<»n that, hypnat^ofjie hallueinations possess
two dillerent; aeliolo<j[i(‘s. Tiny ar(‘ found most eommonly
ainoufF eliildren at a ranf^e of ay(^s eornspondin^^ to those
durint* which the faetdty of eidr-tie imat>;ery is most iiotiee-
abl(‘. liike (‘idetie vision, liypnaf>*o^ne lialliieinations re(*ur
relatively s(*ldom after twelve or hairteen years of a^e.
When^ eas(\s of liypna^o^ie hallu(‘ination do oeeur after
this a<»(‘, j)artieularly witli adults, tlie hallueinalorv imaji^ery
resembles that often ]wodu(‘e(l by the drn^ mescaline and
in sul)'aeut(* aleoliolic* de liriun) ; this indicate's tliat the
rc'ciirreaKH* of the hall\)(‘inations late r on in life^ is ne)t simply
a re-pelituuv of ewi^iwal sponta\UH»\s faculty but that, some
de*<4Te*e^ of toxaemia is re'sponsible.

Se)me^ individuals, it is e’laime ei, appe‘ar te) be* able to ineluee
h}j)na‘r()^ie! ballueinatie)ns, uneler favourable^ eonditie)ns,
simjjly by ele>sin{r the*ir eyes and eom{)let(‘ly re‘laxinf^. It
Is eloubtful whetluT suedi liallueinatiems can be terme‘d
hy])naij[o^rie ; they are‘ pre)l)ably due to the emergence of a
liglit trance state*, hyste'riexal in e)rigim

A sele‘etie)ii e)f water colour j)aintings <if hypnage)gic
liallueinations, which e)n eae'h oejcasion weTc })ainte*(l as se)on
as practie'able afteT the termination e)f the hallucinatieuis,
are preserved at, the olUces e)f the Society for Psychical
llesearch.

Chapter FAght

SCRYING AND CRYSTAL GAZING

jAlll the world over it has been diseovered that st(‘fidy
gazing at clear, translucent or bright objects may, with
some gif toil individuals, result in the gazer seeii\g visions
of varying interest and complexity. Ihitil comparatively
recent times such visions were invariably (Tt‘ditcd with an
occult or religious significance. The crystal bccaim* the
key to knowledge not only of the past and the future, and
of distant events, but (wen of heaven and h(‘ll and their
inhabitants. Dr. Dee, the famous Elizabethan savant,
used magical divination by royal request to divine the most
propitious day for Queen h^lizabeth’s coronation, and spent
much of his time peering into his (Tystal in an effort to
inveigle the archangels into discussing matters of philo¬
sophic import.

The occult tradition in connection with scrying has pcT-
sisted down to the prescait day ; many a fortune teller n\akes
his living among the great centres of western culture hy
gazing into a crystal and imparting information—for a sum—
rc'garding the enquirer’s future. Needless to say this class
of scrx'c r ” never secs anything in his crystal. He is a
charlatan pure and simple.

Despite the claims of psychical research and spiritualism,
there is not the least evidence of any supernatural powers
accompanying the ability to scry ; nor is there any logical
reason wdiy there should be. Scrying, wlien genuine,
is simply a convenient method, one of several, of inducing
visual hallucinations in individuals who possess citluT a
strong faculty for eidetic imagery or a natural tendency to

128

SCKYINC; AXn CuYSTAI, (iA/.lNd

Vli)

hallucination due to any one out of a nuinhcr of prissibic
causes.

Owin^^y to t]i(' strikin^j ellects a(*hiev^(‘(l f>v this nietliod,
seryinjr lias, throughout the a<^u*s, l)(*eri tlnr most courted
of all th(‘ methods of magical divination, and is the one
wliieh has arous(‘d the curiosity <»f tlie mass of llu* })eo|)l<r
at al! times. t(‘rm to scry ’* comes IVoni the Knglisli

woni to ‘‘ descry " \vlu(‘li means \() make* out dimly“,
or “ to sneeeed in discerning.'' Serving is nol. conlimil
to gazing into a crystal ball. Tin* word covers the use ol‘
all tyj>es of of>j(‘ets t inployed for th(‘ )>urpose of imiueing
hallu(*inat(»ry visions. Such objects art* numt rtuis aud of
(‘onsiderabli' variety. Apart from tlu* glass spli(‘re beloved
of HUiU'k sooihsayt'rs of modtrn fairgrounds, ptilislitd stones,
<*oncave mirrors. burnislit‘d m(‘tal and a host of other <d\ieels
with polished or glisleiiing surfaces, liavt* been found etfec-
tiv<'.

Th(‘ original crystals wen*, naturally, not composed of
glass but of polished rock crystal. In Kgypt a pool of ink
or other dark colourc'd liepiid, including blt)od. has been
us(‘d for e(‘nturi(‘s. Tribes of the nortli-west frontier of
India used tlie livtT of an animal, altliough this must n(»t
1)(‘ confused witli the art of haruspieation which involves
obs(r\ing tlie condition of the liver or entrails. Water
too, has b(‘(‘n and still is used among various primitive
tribes from Africa to Siberia. In ancient (ircec'c and during
the middle ages a polished metal mirror was gcnt*rally
customary. In Arab countri(\s the })oIishi‘d linger nail is
still used.

In th(‘ past, hallucinations induced by serving were*
inevitably attributed to tin* ojXTation of occult powtTs.
In primitive, siani-civiliscd and peasant communities today
this beli(‘f is still held. At the beginning of the present
century soeii'ties of psychical research, whieli included among
their membership world famous savants, spent a great
deal of time in finding out vvlndher these beliefs held any
truth. KHdrts were made to establisli the t(*lepathie or
clairvoyant nature of many of th(‘ hallucinatory visions.
Such pscudo-scicntific investigations }>roduced no results
worth serious attention. To the ignorant, th(‘ o(‘curreiic('
of ‘‘ visions ” in a crystal or other speculum is itself a super-

TiiK PSYCII()I.()(!V OK THE Ot'CUl.T

i;5()

natural event. To sueh individuals it would apj)ear quite
illo^ieal to dilVerentiate between the faculty of inducing
crystal visions and the faculty of l)eing able to “ see ” into
past or future th(‘V partake of the same magical naturt?!
To find sueh occult traditions forming the basis of sincere
attempts at sei(‘ntilic investigation demonstrates how
deeply the lure of the occult is engrained in human nature.

Despite sueh ill-judged attempts to put magic on a scaenti-
he basis, at least om^ psychologist of wide repute has used
scrying m(‘thods in tin' interests of m(*dieal psyeholi>gy.
Dr. Morton Prinet*. whose work in this spluTc* Ix^ars witness
to unusual vision, used an eh^etrie light bulb as a spi culum.
His pati(‘nt was suffering from a Insterical disability and
was tlKTcfore readily hypnotisable. Intcnshnl to discovcT
whether a repeated hallu<*in.atory scene was du(‘ to a for¬
gotten memory or tlie pn»du(‘t of imagination. Prince
hyjmotised his patient and disc^ovend that the seem* re[)re-
sented an almost idcaitieal one which had Ixcn experieuecd
in real life years previously and of which the paticait had
no conscious recollection.

In another experiment the content of tlu' crystal hallu¬
cination was essentially the same* as that of an (‘xpericnce
which the patie nt hael unelergone many y ears before* when
ill with pneurue)nia. During this illne*ss she hael btKxnne
highly' eleliriems, experie'neing visual and auditory lialluean-
atie)ns. The*se she te)e)k tei be re*al and ae*teel ae*e*e)relingly.
In Prince’s light-bulb cry stal she saw he‘rse‘lf as she we)uld
have aj)})eare*el te) anotheT person present eluring the perie>d
of her elelirium.’ This particular epise>ele is reve^aling in
that it she)ws e’learly^ the hysteTie^al ge‘nesis e)f a typie*al
autoscopie hallucination.

Morton Prince eonducted two interesting scries e)f inv^e^sti-
gations in whie*h hallucinations and aute)matic writing were
combined. He made his hysterical subject give a simiil-
tanc'e)us verbal deseriptiem of a series of visual hallucinatie)ns ;
at the same tinje the subject’s hand wrote automatically.
In a number of such tests subsequent comparison of the
automatic scTipts with the parallel series of hallucinatory'^
scenes (described verbally and taken down) showed that the

» Prince, M., An Experimenlal Study of Vitnom, Brain, 1898, pp. 528-54tl

ScM{YI\(; AXI) C’KYSTAI. (iAZINC

181

hittrr forinocl a kind of picture scries illustrating a story
written automatically l)y the subject’s hand. The subject,
whose (‘onseious atb ntion was d(‘vot(‘d to the task of des¬
cribing the hallueinatorv scenes which she was experiencing,
(lid not s(‘(‘m to be aware of what her hand was writing.
Moreover, tlu‘ hallueinatorv sc'cnes appeared to possess
IK) nior(‘ signitieaiKH* thaii a randorii series of pictures until
the automatic script r(‘V(‘al(‘d tluir eoluTcnt relationship.

Th(‘S(‘ and other (‘xperiments se rve to show that the
hallucinations produced by scrying are not basically different
from tlu' genei'al run of hallmnnat ions or ps(‘udo-halluein-
ations. While hysteria may often b(‘ held to aeciount. for
tli(‘ faculty of genuine serving, in othtTS it s(‘ems to be more
nearly related to eidt tie imagtTv. Kideti(‘ imag(‘ry is allied
to the imagery of memory and imagination. Many children
who ])ossess this image-forming (*apaeity in high degree can
gaze at a j)ieture or scene and then j)roj(‘(*t the resultant
mental image upon a blank sericn for a considerable length
of lime. In many (‘ases the (‘larity and (h^dh arc* so excellent
that the image* eonstitutc's a genuine hallueination.

Jaenseh. the standard authority on t*idetie imagtTV,
writes that with good (*id(*tie subjecds, if the objects gazed
at are three-dimensional, the* subscHjuent (‘idc'tie image
will appc'ar three dimensional on the serecMi. Of such
highly develoj)(‘d eidetie images Jaenseh reports that they
may be

as jfexilile and i*liaiii»(*alil(* as lueniory iinajies, willinoly and sniootldy
idllowiiiir <*very etian<»t* in the How of ideas. Their oecairoriee, stat)ility
anil liisappearafH'i* hardly deperxl on sense-|)liysiolo«ieal or <)ptieal
factors at all, hat most decisively on })sychological factors.” »

As with hypnagogic hallueinations, the most frequent
ag(* at which eidetie imagery occurs is ijt childhood. In
this eonn(‘(*tion it is })robably not mere coincidence that in
Arab eountri(‘s young boys are traditionally regardt'd as
the best serycTs- -using the polished thumbnail as a speculum.
In these countries scrying has naturally a clairvoyant
significance. The boy gazes at the thumb-nail until he sees
pictures forming and is then asked whether he can see the
whereabouts of a lost or stolen article, a missing relative, or

* Jacnscii, K. H., Kidvtir Imafivry^ pp. 28 - 2 a.

ThK PvSYCllDl.Or.Y OF TllF OcCULT

i:5J

the features of a thief or uiurderer. By his deseriptioiis it is
ho|)( (1 that the desired inf(»rination will be forth(‘oiiiiiig.

It is sipfnifieaiit tliat alter tluse boys havt* pass(‘d about
their tenth or (h^vcnth year their serving faculty generally
disappears ; the same thing is usually observed in eonne<?tion
with both liypnagogi(‘ liallueinatioiis and eidetic imagery.
The ability to scry, tin refore, is probably mon* often related
to th(‘ eidetic faculty than to hallucinations of hysteric
origin. Occasior)ally, as with hypnagogic and eid(‘tie sub¬
jects, the Arab serving-boy may retain his faculty through
life. Writers on the subi(‘et have hitherto largely overlooked
the realationship b(‘tw(‘en serving and eid(‘tic imagery.

Oiu* of the most successful scryi rs was a Miss (ioodrieh-
Freer. In her hints on teaming to serv, the »nethod sh(‘
advocat(*s is remarkably similar in many nspects to that
adopt(‘d by Jacaisch and others in their inv(\stigations of
eid(‘tic subji'Cts :

The su})ject should ga/t‘ carefully at some simple object in
llie room in front of him, avoiding all ol)j(cts likely to lx;
actually refleet(‘d in the glass ball, lie should tlaai dost* his
eyes and make an attenij)! to visualise nuaitally the obj(‘ct
chosen. The lu^xt step is to sic whidher it is possible to
project or see ” the object in the crystal. Miss tioodrich-
Freer states that if one possesses a genuine gift of visualisa¬
tion this projection ought to be achieved without much
dillieulty after a certain amount of practise. When success
has txen achieved with simple objects, th(‘ next step is to
increase tlu ir com})lcxity ; a person is t\exl chosen for tlic
object and linally a view or conipIi*x scene. After practisi^
and a eliange over to a dilferent technic|U(‘ the server may
learn to achieve a state of mild merdal dissociation a,nd
thereby produce autonomous inuigery, without first having
to gazi' at an object, which will appear as novel hallucinatory
images in th(‘ crystal and become activated on their own
account.

Other scrycTs adopt different methods in learning. Some
claim, for example', that all that is necessary is to visualise a
well knowui tViec or scene and transfer this picture from “ the
mind’s i^yc ” to the crystal. Other scryers trace the genesis
of llieir hallucinatory images to actual points of light or
specks of dust—the so-called points de repere —on the crystal.

SciJVl.Vd AND (’kYS'JAL (iA/JN(;

]:V4

Morton PriiKM* tound that a crystal was not n(‘(!(‘ssarily
essential. “ Merely (ixiny tin* attcaition with expectation of
lh(‘ (lev(‘Ioj)nient of tli(‘ plnnomenon is sullieitnt with
snseeptible subjicts." llr* adds; “An examination of tlie
content of visiialisaticMis thus ])roduced sliows that they are
id<nti(‘al in struetun^ and action with many of the liallueina-
tions of th(‘ insane as well as with the spontamons hal!uei?ia-
tions of the sane."' According* to the w(*ll-kn(»wn psyeholo-
^rist, T, \V. Mitehel, crystal ^ra/inn- (‘an also bc‘ (‘Xfx rimentally
induced by hy|>notie su^^(‘sti()n.'

An (‘\(*(‘lK‘nl (‘xanij)le of t]i(‘ rational adaj)tability of
hallucinations to (*ircu!nstanc(‘s and su^^f^cAstion is found in
th(‘ use of a niaoiiilyin^f <»:lass in scr\ infr. Xorthcote Tliomas
mentions two oeeasions on which one of liis subjeets asked
for a nuignifyinn- glass wliicli cnabl(‘d lua* to distinguish some
small <tr blurred objects appearing in the glass sjihere.' In
this (‘omic*cti(>n it has been r(‘porteil that liypiiotic hallucina¬
tions can somelim(‘s be “ doubl(‘d " by |)rc‘ssurc on th(‘ eye¬
ball.'’ This sanu‘ jdu‘nuu\en<»t\ has also been <d)S(‘rved in
th(' hallucinations of a number of psyelioties.

* PriiKH*, M.. An Experimental Stmifi hj thv Mechanism aj Hallneinations^

Hrit. Joiini. I^syeliol., Med. Sect.. II. UrilJ. laA.

* Pstfehabtffy and the Sciences^ p. 170.

^ Tiioiims, .N\, TInmffht Transference, pf). i:U ami laii.

* Parish, K., Hattncinations and Ifinsions, p. *jni.

Chapter Nine

AUTOMATIC WRITING

Table-'iuhninc, OriJA and Planchkttk

It is now j)rop()S(*(l to with a crlass of psy(*holo^ical
anomalies whieli until n^latively modern times have always
been eredited as evid(‘nee of a supernatural faeultv and which
have been amon^ some of the chief factors cordrihutin^ to
the growth of the modern cult of spiritualism. These
anomalies come under the general heading of psyehologic^al
automatisni, and manif(*st themsclv(‘s in sucli activities as
automatic writing, table-turning, ope rating the ouija-board,
the planchette and the divining pendulum.

All these })h('nomena, of course, can (asily be simulated,
and indeed this may be taken as almost invariably the case
when financial gain enters into the performances. There is
no denying, however, that many professional Jiiediuins may
originally havt* [)ossessed a genuine automatic faculty ; but
tlie transition from genuine to spurious exhibitions is s«)
<'asily made and furtluT has th<‘ advantage that it is always
available that no professional could resist lh(‘ tcinf)tation.
NevertJu‘less, genuine psychological automatism is not
uncommon ancl can in fact b(‘ developc'd by th(i majority of
people who are prej)ared to spare tlnj time and patieiHH*. It
is with the gcnuiiu' brand of psychological automatism with
which we are mainly concerned here.

Automatic WTiting implies the ability to write int(‘lligibly
without the direction of the conscious attention. The
subject’s attention juay be occupied with reading or some
other form of easy mental activity ; altcriuitively he may
simply relax w^hile endeavouring to make his mind a blank.

Tabi.e-Tukning, Ouua and Pdanchette

135

“ In these* eircunistanees, thv hand with tlie pencil may write not
only volumiiiously, but often eoherently and interestingly. What
it writes would appear to be the ))roduet of some system of ideas
which is denied fviU access to the normal main eonscuoiisriess -more or
less thoroughly dissociated, repressed, or buried.” '

Ip the cast? of a few very versatile autoinatisis, the writer
may engage wholeheartedly in a conversation at the same
time that his hand is writing good prose or even verse, its
owner remaining oblivious to wdiat is being written until he
subsequently reads it.

Tlu‘ eontent and style of the writing almost always apptiars
as if a diilerent personality w^erc tlie author, as if a part of the
writer’s mind possessed an autonomy of its own. Indeed a
good many j)syehologists of the older schools hold precisely
this view, maintaining with considerable wealth of argument
that in such iustanees the repressed eom|)lex(‘S of emotionally-
toned id(‘as and d(‘sir(‘s w hi<?h emerge have become dissociated
from the main mental system and appear to have gain(‘d a
ooherenee amounting to a subsidiary and autonomous
personality with a will of its own.

Whether or not this is a suitable descTiption of the state
of affairs exhibited nei'd not concern us at the moment.
What is more important is that tin? hand of the practised
automatic writer or autonographisi can write without the
writcT being in the slightest degree aivare of any effort of
volition. It is little wonder that the general public have
tended to attribute the aut horship of such automatic writings
to spirits, as in the past the automatic writings of witches and
monks were belie\'ed to liave b(?(‘n inspired by demons,
angels, the devil or his opposite number, according to their
content.

Among the simplest forms of autonography arc* tlmse which
involve the use? of a pendulum or an ouija-board. The
main diff'erenee between these two methods is that the former
is eonfiiU'd to a single individual, whereas with the latter
a considerable number of people can participate simulta¬
neously.

Divination by means of a. pendulum in the form of a
suspended ring is found from Europe? to China and has been

^ Wells, Huxley mid Wells, Science of Life, p. 1290.

136

The PsYciioLociY of the Occttit

coHinion in all ages. Onc' of th(‘ (‘arliest reference's to the
pendnliini is that of the Byzantine historian Mareelliniis.
He records that in the time of the Emperor A’ah'iis a number
of men wctc arrc'sted and eonde nmed to death endeavour¬
ing to divine the name of the EmjxTor's sueet'ssor. The
jnethod they used was to set tli<' letters of the alphalx't out
in a circle, as in a modern ouija-board, and to suspend a ring
over the e(‘ntre of th(‘ circle. The ring, by tiu* din'ction of
its swing, indicated in turn various letters of th(‘ alphabet.
This method, as used by these' aiu'ient Homans, a[)pears
to be a very slow one and is seldom r(‘sorted to now. In
spiritualist (*irel(‘s. a similar method j>oj)ular at one tinu* was
to sus])end a pc'iidulum or ring in any emjdy glass and ask the
spirits (pjcstions. One tap on the side' of the* glass meant no,
and two nu*ant yes.

Some indivieluals, especially the* aelhe'renls e)f the* wide-
spre'ad (‘ult of raelic'sthe'sia, claim to be* aide* to elivine* [)rae‘-
tieally anything by rne'ans e)f the pe*nduliim. Their pre>g-
iiostie*ations range from medieval diagnosis to treasure liunting
and (*rimiiial detection. The pendubnn's dire'ction of
swing, range' of are, type' of e)sciilatie)n, either alone* e»r in
combination, are* f.*arefully studied ” for the purpe)se of
divination. Radicstlu'sia is a new ve'rsion of older oeeudt
belie'fs. It is ne)w regarde'd by its aellu'rents as a sciene'e^ and
possesse's its pe*euliar te'rms anel jargon anel a variety e>f

seientific theories all its own. Most radie'sthetists
believe', epjite e*e)rrt'e*tly, that their rods and pendulums
register and amplify minute muscular moveme'nts in their
hands and arms. Th<*y asse-rt. however, that the'se* muscular
movements are reactie)ns elue to a variety of mysterious
’"waves,” ""radiations” and "" fields ” emanating from the
obje'ct of elivination.

AnotheT school of radie'sthetists maintains that all such
divinatie)ns are elue* to the* exercise* e)f “ psyebie ” fore*es and
faeulties sue*li as telepathy, clairvoyance and |)rophcefy.
Me)st water-eliviners whe) interest themselves in the tlmoredical
aspe'ct e)f the ir art cling to the "" physietal ” theory of rays and
enianatiems anel so forth. Needle'ss to say the nai’ve*ty of
these the*e)ries preedudes the*ir be*ing taken seriously, anel they
remain totally unsu|>[)orte*el by rneidern physical sciene*e.

In eases where fraud can be discounted, the ('ffects prexluced

Taiu.k-Tuhninc;, OurjA and Planchettk

137

tJirotjoh ]KMululun)-s\vi?»^in^, tahlc-iurnin^ and th(‘ ouija-
board <l(‘{K‘rHl on uiicoiiscious muscular movements. The
instrum(*nts rifleet with fair aeeuraey what are often called
idcowntnr movements, in this (*ase of the luiud and arm. Any-
oiu* (*aM test Ihi' VaeV of idiMuuoli^r moveinents for himself by
siisp(‘!idin^ a rino or any oIIkt weighted f)bje(‘l on the end of a
iin(‘ piece* of strino- about t(‘n inches lon^. It will be found
impossible to kt‘(*p the rinn* absolutely immobilised in this
j)(»sition. !Iow(‘\'(T liard one triers, lh(*re will always riaiiaiii
a slijvht movement due to involuntary movements of the
ha?id. If the imagination is now directed towards visualising
a to-and-fro me^vement of lh(‘ ring and lh(‘ attention remains
concentrated em the expected meivement. however still the
hanel is kept, the* visualiseel me)ve*ment se>e)n bee^omes dis-
ceTiiible* in the* me)tion e^f the* pe‘neluluin. If the motion
the»ught e)f is lateral or e*ireular, then similar movements of
tJu* pendulmn will be* for thee )mi Jig. The motion of the* pen¬
dulum faithfully re‘ll(*e*ts the* ide‘a in the* subject’s mind -
he‘ne‘e the* teTin ieleM)me>te)r. As will be* seen in later chapters,
small involuntary ieU‘ome)te)r movements are responsible
for the “ sue'ccss e)f many experiments in telepathy and
clairvoyance*. Mus(‘le*-re‘ading is a p(‘rforma!!(*(* which relies
almost entire ly ejii the* e*ue‘s proviele^d by such me)ve*m(*nts.

Iji table-turning (-tilting or -tapping) two, three or more
pe*rse)ns place* the*ir liands on a light table* and the table movn^s
in re sjjonse t(» tlie une^onseious idee)me)tor movements of the
sitte rs. This be*ing a spiritualist practice, the* spirits ” are
asked (jucstions and the table answers” by its movements,
in the negative* or the aHirmative, or acee^reling to a coele of
signals evolve*d for the purpose*. Sometime*s a list of letters is
run through ve*rbaily wliile the* table* gives a tap on the floe>r
when the eorre*et letter is re*a(*h(*el. In this way m<‘ssages
are* spe lt out. Tliis me*thoel would only succeed among groups
of })e*ople* eontiuually asso(*iating toge*ther aiul posse*ssing
iiuiny ideas in eommem. The* naive assuniptiejii that it is
the* spirits who make the table me)ve is due to the fact that
the* participants remain unaware* of the* iele*as which sub-
ce)nscie>usly activate their idt*e)me)tor movements.

“ Till* answers as if it was alive ; the emotions of the sub-

eonseioiis are faithfully translated by the kind of movements made
hy tJu; inert object. This lifeless table seems to have a mind; it

188

Tin: VsYciioi.oiiY iw TDK ()i‘t\n;r

liesitates, it sh(»ws irritation; it allirins rmT^»:etu*ally ; or it sways
solemnly. No one who has not witnessed such s<*anees ean imaufine
how' well diverse sentiments ean he expressed hy the freqiieney or
the Foreefulness, the slow*, hesitatiiifi;, vif^orous, tn* <<entle movements.
It is an aeliial lanj^uaj^e, sometimes ehupient and alw^ays interosiiinjf,
and the simple-mimh'd are easily led lt> eoneliide that si>me external
intelliijenee is movinij the table.*’ *

One of th(* most int(*r(‘stiri^y reports of in vest ififat ions into
tablc'tilting by spiritualist nu^diiims eonies, surprisinf^Iy
enough, from the p(‘n of Jung,* and though brief is well
worth jMTiisal. In it he )n>ints out that surprising results
are obtained by ni(‘diums r(‘ading ’* the thoughts of otht r
persons purportetily t)y lel(‘pathy, whost' liands ari‘ tou(*hiug
the table, simply by a variation of tlie musele-readiug teeh-
ni(ju(‘ in eojijnetion with eandully phrased ejnestions and
remarks.

Viollct r(‘eords an interisting (‘ase of a woman with whmn
tabl(>tapj)ing bec'ame an obsession. This patuid had
voluntarily (*niered a mental home to bt‘ eurc il of her persis-
t(‘nt d(‘lusif)ns, and one(‘ then* she was diaiied ae(‘ess to any
form of labl<‘. Sht‘ eontimied to eon verse with the sjiirits
liowcver :

“She had, all thint>s, retaimsl Ikm* old typt(>l<»aieal power;

the n<*ed to run to the lahle was always imperious, iiotwitlislandinj;
tlu* iaeility of amtitorv eonverse with tJie snirils ; hut as \vt‘ oppose*!
tlie nse of the ta!)le, typlohvjvy was resorti*d to hy means of the pencil
strikini>’ letlers on a I)ook or on th<* bed ; w'e sloppe<| that. also. TJien
the limjer ra|)j)ed ; linally tin* typlolop:y heeamc in1<Tior and pundy
mtaital. The hdter.s wen* rappe<l out in hc^r Jiead in th(MiL;ht. I’his
mental lypUdot^y heeame oik; of her *‘hief means of eomimini(‘ation
with the Spirits and parti*adarly with (tod, the most assidiaais (»r all
her eomrmmieators. ’ ‘

With tlie use of th(? ouipi-board we eom(‘ ujion a method of
autt)nogra])hy half way between the limited automatic
movtanents available to the pcatduluiti and th(* table on one
hand and the fnc How of automatic* writing can the other.

* Ki<;het, ( Thirty Years of Pstfchical Jti’scarch, pp. 11)1-2.

• ('olleeled /^apers on ^tnatytical Psychology, pp. 50-50.

’ Viollet, M., Spirltaafhsm and insanity, p. 81.

TAIiLK-TT'KNING, Ol IJA AND Pl-ANClU/rJi:

The principle of th(* ouija a term (h rived fronj th(‘ Kreneli
out and the (itmian /V;, both ineanin^^ V(*s'' is a very
simple one. The* letters oT the aljihabet are placed in a circle ;
included in the circle of letters are a yes ” and a no.” A
form of indicator-apparatus eoimnonly used in modern
spiritualist circles comprise, a small l)oard on wlieels upon
wliieli tinj^ers of the participants rest. One person or several
may parti(‘ipate. \'erv (‘omnionly used is an upturned wii.c
glass on a polislu^d table; the glass slid(*s easily across the
polished snrfae(‘ towards any l(‘tt(‘r which the spii’its may
feel inclined to ehoos<‘.

The usual j)roeednre is for on(‘ of tlie sitters ” to ask the
spirits a qu(‘sti()n : the poinbr or wim* glass in reply will
move to th(‘ y(‘s " or the "‘no", or start tf) sj)ell out some
kind of a nu‘ssag(‘. With beginners the ” messages '* arc
almost invariably gibberish, but with (*ontinu(‘d practise the
movements of the pointer bi*eom(^ inerc-asingly eoluTcnt and
ra})id. until a stage of true automatism is naehed where in
the guiding movements of the hand and arm are directed by
elements of the mind dissociated in some* degree from the
normal conscious pca'soiiality of the individual ; the conscious
attention of the j)articij)ants is directed solely to the task of
reading the im.ssages as (hey emerge, (ireat spe(‘d and
eflieitMiev is frecpiently obtai?K*d by these automatic move¬
ments which spell out tlu‘ messages, in some instances even
warranting tlie serviei s of a sttaiograjdier to take* them down.

In contrast to the basieally euinbersome methods oi‘ tlu‘
ouija-l)oard, th<’ planeliel le rej)resents a eonsiderahle advama*.
This instruiiK'nl is a small luart-shapcal board su})ported by
a j)eneil at the apex point invert(*(l and a small wheel at
caeli of the two ri'inaining corners. The opc rator places one
or nH>re ling(*rs lightly on it, avoidirtg any eonseiously
directed movi'inents. As with the ouija-board the instrinmait
may he ojierated either by a singU* j)ersf)n or by two.

True automatic writing may bi‘ obtained by ns(* of the
planeh<‘tt(‘. The instrument glides easily over the pa|)er
leaving pcaieil marks whenAaT it travels. With (*onsid(‘rabl(?
practise two or even thVee persons may toneh the instrument
simnltaiuonsly and produce writing with a surprisingly
degree of rapidity. As with other forms of an tonography,
the automatie aedivitv of the hand is g(Mierallv attributed

140

TriF PSYCHOTXXiY OF THF 0(’( ri/r

to the influence of discarnatt* spirits of the “ dear departed.’’
To tlu' naive and superstitious entluisiasts who indul{y(‘ in
spiritistic autonography it is not tlu* hands i>f the sitters
themselves whieli activate* the tables, ouijas and planehettes ;
A>r th(*ni tlu* plaeing of the hands on the chosen instrument
merely provides the psychic conditions most favourable
to tlie a(*tivity of spirits and the spirit forces. Any suggestion
that tlie participants themselves produce* the writing by a
process of psychologi(‘al automatism is met with rigid and
determined disbelief.

Automatic Writing

It is in automatic writing that wv find the most interesting
phenomena. And it is among some ot the literary ])roduc-
tions produced autonographieally that many of the older
psychologists found the strongest evideiu^c* of dissociated
coherent personalities lying buried in tlu* d(‘pths of the
subconscious mind.'' Parallel ‘‘ evidence is fortheuming
in sonu* of the phenomena of hysteria, such as in fugues,
where* the subject forgets who he is and taki‘s on, perhaps
for months or even years, a totally ne w personality represent¬
ing all those* asju cts of his nature which have always sought
expression but which have been hith(*rto firmly repressed.

There is nothing extraordinary about automat it* pheno¬
mena. The typist who concentrates all her att(*ntion on
rtading the nearly illegible manuscript of an inconsiderate
author operates the keys of the typewriter automatically.
The pianist who plays a melody while talking to someone
( Ise plays automatically. Hy analogous nuTins it is possible
to train the majority of people to write automatically while
their attention is engaged on something else at the time.

This has been proved by Dr. Anita Muhl, a trained psy¬
chiatrist. Following the lead of Morton Prince and others,
Dr. Miihl studied the possibilities of autonography for
psyehotherap(*utie purj)Oses. SIu* found tliat it was in lact
possible. giv(*n the right conditions, to train the majority of
normal w'(*ll-balanced individuals to write automatically.'
With her patients she used autonography to delve into

^ iUiifil A., Antinnatir Dresck'ii, laao.

AI :t( ) M ATi(’ Wii rr i n ( ;

141

th(‘ir iiiiiuis and n susritati! rfpressrrl nicnu>rics and id(‘a-
ussocialions. It is worth recording thnt one of‘ Dr. MidiTs
patients evi n wrote innsic anlono^raphieally. Others among
her patients autonographieally produeed bizarn*, eryptie, and
sometiiiK’s lH‘antifully coloured drawings, whose symbolic
content was resolved with the aid of snbsecjuent automatic
writings and which together formed th(‘ basis of the analy¬
tical th( rap\.

The relatiorishij) b<lween aulonography and hypnotic
stat(‘s of c<)ns(*ions!)ess has Ixvii noted by .Tung, IMaeDougall,
Morton Prin(‘(‘ and Wm. Drown. All agree that automatic
writing can be* r(*adily ifi(lue(*d l)y hypnotic or ))ost-hyj)notic
sugg(‘stion. Jung* and MacDougal!'' state that aiitono-
graphy propt'r is eonsiderably more dillieult to produce than
automatic table-turning or the automatic operation of r)uija
and j)laneh(‘lle. MacDougall writes that in many cases
‘'it is ])ossibl(‘ to obtain some retros])ective ae(*ount of the
thinking that governc'd tlu‘ writing, il’ the subject is after¬
wards hyj)notised.’'‘

To train a person to produce* autonographv by post¬
hypnotic suggestion is s(*ldom th<* niost practical meth<Ml.
Morton Prinet* describ(*s the method as follows. The
operator first hypnotises the subject

and during the trance slate tells tier she is to write scMnetiiing —ii
verse or unytJiing one pleases—when awake. After being awakened,
a pencil is put in her hand and slie is given a book to read aloud, or
told to count backwards, or d(> sonu* mental problem. While tier
attention is occupied with this, the hand holding the jiencil, if plaeed
over a sh<?et of paper, will write whiil was desired. The subject
herslf lias absolutely no knowledge of what her hand writes." *

The hysterical character of many of Prince's subjects is
evinced by the fact that in several cases th(* hand of the
autonograjihist b(*cainc, while writing, perfectly^ ana(*sthctic.*
With normal subjects such methods as post-hypnolh
sugg(*stion would seldom succi'cd in producing genuine

® CoUrctrd Papers oti Analytical Fsychohgy, p, r>7.

* An Outline of Abnormal Psycholof*y, p. 257.

* op. eit.

* Prince, M., A (Contribution to the Studif of Hysteria and Hypnosis, Proc.,

S.P.K., 1 1, p. 90.

* ibid.

Tm: Psv(’iioi.f)(;Y of thk Orcui/r

U‘JI

autonography. Although most fluent autonographists are
umloubtcdly hysterical, it is not possible to say this of all
of them. In eases where the autonographx appeared
sp(mtanrou.sly, however, hysteria ean saf(*ly be assumed
to l)e the aetivating faetor.

One of the most interesting eontributions to the study
oi* autonograi)hy is Morton Prince’s An K,vperi mental Study
of the Mechanism of Hallucinations. ‘ In this unique
})aper Prinee descTibes his ex|)eriments with a subject who
was able, while writing automatically, to give a simultan¬
eous v(Tbal description of a seri(‘s of concurrent visual
hallucinations. As she described her hallucinations her
hand eotdimied to write axitomatically. This subject
could induce autonogra]>hy at will and frecpiently experi-
eneeil a series of hallucinatory (or |)seudo-hallueinatorv)
scenes illustrating, as it were, what was being written.
She appeared totally unconscious of what her hand was
writing even though she apparently wrote slowly ; and during
ihi‘ exj)crimcnts, in order that the* subject should not see
what sh(‘ was writing. Dr. Prinee covered her head with
an o])aque clotli. Prince took down a verbatim record of
her clescriptions of the hallucinatory scenes and this allowed
hiju subse(juently to compare them with the autonographic
text.

The subject was originally a case of dual-personality
who had been sent to IVincc for treatment. The person
evinced in the autonographic script went by the name of
“ .lulia, ” and purported to be a Spanish peasant girl wdth
high aspirations living in the thirteenth century. This
“ Julia ” had been one of the subsidiary personalities which
had emerged during the original dual-personality phase
of her hysteria. With “ Julia ” purporting to be the author
—and now^ calling herself ‘‘Juliana’" the subject’s hand
wrote (in the third person) romantic and picturesque fan¬
tasies in keeping wdth her role. The hallucinatory scenes
w(Tc varied and there was to be seen, at first glance, little
continuous relationship between them:

The scenes shift as in a dream without apparent relation to one

another. The significant fat^t is that the ctmthmUy inlf be found in

* Brit. J. of Psychol., med. sect., II, 1922, y>p. 165-208.

Automatic* Writinc;

the suh-ctmseinmhj xiyritten script witlioui whicli lh<* varying halliuana-
tions would not. seem to he reLited to om‘ aiiolher and eouUl not l>e
uinlerstood c»r inlerpndc'd as manift^stations of one. and the* same
theme." *

Priiu*e n iua.rks that the* hallucinatory sceiu s wit<‘ much
ricficr in cltdail than the description of tlu* e})iso(le ^iven in
th(* serij)t ” and this can be seen from tlu* following excerpt:

Autouiativ Script Simultaneous Hallucinatory

Scene

5. . . / walk to A road. At the end of tlu* road
early mass at the village a little church. A sort ol‘ white
church or mission. stucco mission church. Juliana’s

ha(*k is towards me. She is walking
do7vn the road ban footed going to
church. l'h(* whole is as plain as a
medion picture. I can sc(‘ the
^rain waving iti the adjoining
liehls. (I have the feeling as if
she is lazy and does not want to
go to church.)”

[Shift]

0. At a village called A sort of scpiaic. I can sec her
in my time Medesa. Imcli* Salvator. There is a tent

propped up over a lot of vegetables
exposed in the market place. A
lot of foreign looking women are
walking about. There is a crowd.”’

Another set of experiments by Prince, ecpially interesting,
r<‘vc‘rs(‘d the proc(*ss, so that his subject first of all induc(^d
the hallucinations with the aid of a crystal and was then
given th(‘ command to write automatically ; with the result
that instead of th(* autonography giving rise to accompanying
hallucinations, the hallucinations in their turn dictateci
th(‘ style of tiu* autonographic scripts. Whether Prince’s
subject actually experienced genuine sensory hallucin-

• il)id., |). ITsl
» Frince, ibid., p. 17 a.

144 Tiik Psvc noL(>(;v ok tuk Occui/r

ations is an open (pK'stion ; it is (‘(jually lik(‘Iy that they
were the product of sugffest(‘d pseudo-iiallueinosis.

Most bcf^iniuTs who wish to develop the art of antono-
graphy simply liold a pencil in one hand over a sh(‘et of
paper and ])urposely allow the attention to whikUt or (‘ls(‘
engage in eonversation. The expectation of produ(‘ing
autonography has the ( Ifeet of mild auto-suggestion, aiul
after a considerable time the pencil will begin to maki*
variegated movianents beginning with upward strokes,
zigzag lines, or evtai just a single lin(‘. The* next step is
the formation of single letters; and then a s<'ries of hitlers,
at first devoid of coherenee. After furthcT practise* these
will combine into words and senti*ne(‘s. In a numbt*r of
instances autonographists have written arul published long
fantasies and ev(‘n novels of undt‘nia))le m(‘rit. Such
literary works invariably reflect the reijresscd longings and
ideas of their authors, often in a complicated pattern of
symbolism.

The Society for Psychical Kcsear(*li lias published a large*
oe.>Uectioi\ of exlreineily interest ing a\itonographic scripts
in its Proceedhigs. In the main, however, tin* Society has
generally been more conccrn(‘d with the ()Cfailt aspe(ds of
these writings than with th(*ir f)syehology. There are
partial exceptions, one* of which is the inter(‘sting s(*ries of
autonographic scripts by Dr. S. li. Soa), Dr. Soal found
that he possessed a faculty for autonography which only
proved effective when one particular j)(‘rson was guiding
his hand in order to keep tin* lines straight and r.(*turn his
pencil to the correct position when lie reaclied the end of a
line. This dual autonographic ])artnershij) is unusual.
Soal describes his m(*thod of inducing aut()nogra])hy as
follows :

‘‘ Hy coiicentnit iag my mind on some trivial craleiilation. I liave
learnt how to er<;al<‘ a mental state of internal (list nu;tion, and it is
during the mom<*nts when my mind is tiius oeeupied that the writing
is produeed. Tlie moment my mind reverts to wlint my hand is
supposed to be doing tJie writing stops as suddenly as it eommeneed.
It is, however, impossible to maintain tills mental attituch* of complete
abstraction for more than a few minutes at a time, but a fresh effort
of ra}>id concentration made at the v^ery moment when I feel my mind

Aittomatk' Wkitinc;

145

to 1){‘ stniyiii" l)Ji(*k Avill often enJiblc* Uk! sliite to l)o roiivw(‘fl and the
writiutf ]>volonL»ed witliont notic^eable intcrniplion.’’ *

Accordiii^r to Juny, thr pencil in tlie initial sta^res may
start to write in th(i air without toueliin*^^ tlie paper, dung
has also ol)serv(‘(l sirrphographia (mirror-writing) in eon-
neetion with autonograj)hy.‘'

The idea at tlie hac'k of the beginner's mind should be to
allow the lia?id holding the pencil to )nov(\ as it were, by
its own volition. When the hand takes over control while
the eonseious attention is directed (Isewhere, w(‘ are pre¬
sented with true automatic writing. With some subjects,
howevcT, the words are written down cpiite eonseiously
but the autonogra])hist fails to eonmet th(* words into
senliiiees until he subsequently reads through what lie has
written. Others write down th(‘ words which seem to them
to ent(T their minds from an external source. This inter¬
esting illusion, often a eonseqiienee of genuine dissociation,
gives the subject th(f impression that he is taking down the
words from (lietation ; to those naively inclined to spiritual¬
ism, this tyj)t‘ of autonograpliy must appear as eonvin(‘ing
jiroof of tlui truth of their beli(‘fs.

It may be of advantage at this point to mention sonu*-
thing of the phenomena of spontaneous strepliograj)hia.
Mirror-writing is what its name implies -the letters, words
and sentences being written in sueli a fashion that they
look like the relieetion of normal writing when held IxTore
a mirror. A number of individuals are able to write mirror-
wise \oluntarily, and sj^ontaneous stn^phogragraphia is not
altogether uncommon in the ease of shifted sinistrals -
naturally left-hand(‘d people who hav(‘ been taught to
write with their right hands.

In general strephograjdiia is most often observed in c*ases
of injury to the e(‘r(*bral hemispheres, in mental d(‘feetives,
in liyjinosis and states of partial eonseiousness, in sofm^
type s of hysteria, and occasionally in left-handed children.
It is interesting to note that the majority of mirror-writers
cannot read what they have written. Graphological hallu¬
cinations in crystal gazing are sometimes stivqdiographical

* Vror, s. p. H., vol. as, p. aa2.

‘ Collrclcd Papers oa Analytical Psychology, j)p. 57-58.

Tm: Psyc'ii<)i.<h;v of thk Ocrn.r

in ('liiirac*t(T ; similarly the plu^riorneuoii of reversed word-
ordt r may also o(*eur.

TluTe is another class of writiny -inverted writiiiy and
inverted mirror-writiiiy; tlies(‘, howeve?\ art‘ ra?’(‘.

Analoyons to these yrapholoyieal aberrations is back¬
ward spci'ch " which is vtay uncommon. I'lure .are s(‘V(‘ral
type's of this. Tlu* sentc'ticcs may follow logically enoiiyli
but the words composing ('acli s(‘ntem*es are' spoken in
reve rse el emler. Ayain, Ihc words iheauselve's may fe)iU)\v
in loyieal \)rdcr but they are' proiu)uneed backwards ; ad
bcee^mes ia(\ fe^r e'xample. Anel there* is a very rare* elisemler,
strcphosifViholia. wlu*n a be)e)k may have te> bc' rtael upsiele
down te) be understoeHl.

The abeivc yrapholoyieal anomalie'S, henvt ver. luive little
bearing em the' main sui)je'e^t of aute>ne)grapliy. In the main,
e>nly mirre)r-writing has been e*e>nspie*\ie)\isly observe'd in
auto]ie)gTaphy, althougli a fe.'W de)ubtful erases e)f the' otlier
type's e)!’ anomaly have oe'casionalJy bt'cn rej)orte‘d.

The outlet afforded to repre'sseel ieleas anel e'lnotions
provideel by aute>nography freejue-ntly results in tlie* eonte'id
of autone)grapliic se'ripts be'ing ce>mple*tely alie*n to tlie ae*-
eepteel e'haraete'r e)f the* write r. An aule)ne)graphist wlio is
kne)wn as a se)!]ie'what fussy inelividual with mild maniK'rs
may pre)elue*e, in his automatic script, luriel ste)rie's e)f .‘i suelelen
death or tales of he roic adventure written in the* first pe*rseai.

The lite'i'ary aeliievcments jirealue't'd autonographie'ally
are soiuetime*s re*mjirkal)le. ])articularly in the* e*ase' of the>se'
individuals with a good eelue*atie»n aeid a wide* range e)f
miscellane'ons kn(nvle*dge‘. In such a manner full le*ngth
ne)vels liave* been writte'U and publishe*el, and pe)lisheel pe)eans
})a\'e‘ sj)e ntaneearsly (*m(*rge‘el aulon(»grapliie;illy. hi most of
these e*ase*s there* is comj)lctc evidence* that sue*h literary
pre>duotions are* the* irsult e)f pre)le)ngeHl subee)nseious incuba¬
tion ; there seems little spontaneous about them ex(*ept
that the subje^ct is neit aedually (‘oi^seious of their e^xisteiu'c
at the* back of his luitid before; tliey eme'rge aute)ne>graph-
ically.

In the Proccedhigs e)f the' S.P.R. there are* a ge>e)d many
examples of the: remarkable manner in whierh tlie subce)n-
seious mind is able to assimilate experiences and items of

Automatk’ Writing

147

kiiowl(‘(l^(^ and ooiubiiie them in a synthesis virtually
iiidistin^ynishalile in form and quality from ereative aehieve-
nuaits of tlu‘ eonseious mind. It may appear odd that the
subject remains unaware of the mental activity involved
ill sueli inslanecs, Vjiit as we shall see later on in the ease of
Professor Kloiirnoy's eel(‘l)rated medium, tlie mind is occa¬
sionally able to create and memorise its creations subcon¬
sciously (uv a scale seldom attained by the conscious etfort.
Such cases ar<‘ r(‘miniseent of the sharpened powers of
obse rvation and histrionic ability often found in hypnotised
subj(‘cts.

Tile jisendo-personalil i(‘s brought into being by auto-
nograjiliy are often hostile to the main personality of the
subject. This is an cspect of a number of analogous jisycho-
hvgical anomalies, particularly among the auditory hallu¬
cinations of ps\ chotics. ]\lany psychotics exp(‘ri(aice inimical
halluciiialions accusing, scrolding or threatening voices, or
menacing figuns.

With nearly all fluent automatic writers, the writing pur¬
ports to come from an individual jiersonality distinct from
that of the autonographer himself. In the case of spirit¬
ualists the ps(‘udo-p(Tsouality generally claims to lie a
disearnaU^ s])irit of the dead. In former days the verbal
automatism or “ involuubiry spe(*ch " of certain hysterics
took the guise of having been instigatc^l by demons or the
devil in person, tli(T(*by fre((uontIy condemning the un¬
fortunate individual to death by stoning and in later periods
to death at the stake. The jihenomcnon was attributed
either to (haiioniacal possession or to witchcraft.

The cunning, patience, and elalxiratc inventiveness of
many j)s<*udo-pcrsonalitics, as found in much autonography,
often giv(‘s a strong impression to fhosi* who subsequently
read the script that the writing emanates from a personal
consciousness other than that of the automatist himself.
Th(‘ theory of dual consciomne^is is scarcely tenable, for
upon analysis the term fails to reveal any definite meaning.
Nor is it the least likely that in eases of genuine creative
writing the process operates wholly without the concom¬
itance of consciousness. Many people can acquire by
practise the hfibit of writing letters or business memoranda

148

Tiik 1\sy('II()Loc;y oi* tiik Occ ri/r

^vhile oarrving on a (‘onversation and witliont: stopping
the flow of Ihe j)(‘n. They are siibsecpu^ntly able to recall
both tlie context of what they have written and the eon-
V(Tsation in whieli they engaged. Similarly some mnsieians
are able to imj)rovis(‘ on tlie piano wliil(‘ engaged in lively
eonversalion. Kx])eriments })rov(% how('ver. that there
is no intensity of (‘oneentration on (ath(T task and that if
intensity of eoneentration is exerted on on(‘, th(‘ subjtrt
fails entirely to carry ont the other. It is the attention wlii(4i
is diA’idcd and tluTc* is a eonseqiu iit loss of eflieieney.

In som(‘ eases of autonograpliy and trance in(*dinmship,
tliis process appears to be (‘arried a stag(‘ further bringing
Avith it a more or less marked degr(‘(‘ of amnesia. In cruder
forms of autonograpliy and nadiumistie trane(\ oft(*n
marked by infantile characteristics, tlie process eafi be
considered analogous to such activities as uneons(‘iously
talking to oneself. People who talk to thems(‘lves arc
often totally oblivious of th(‘ fact. SubsiMjiient amnesia
jnay be complete and the individual in cpiestion may r(‘main
convinced whcai challenged with the fact that he never
uttered a word. The great common denominator of all
forms of anomalous automatism is that the activity in cpies¬
tion (whether mental or jihysieal) is n(‘ith(T initiat(*d nor
sustained by th(^ normal proeess(‘s of volition ; this is the*
only g(‘n(*ralisation which is not opcai to (piestion. Until
we understand more about the mechanism of conscious
attc'ntion, a eomjiletc exjilaiiation of su(*h phenomena as
autonograpliy, trance mecliumship and hysterical dis¬
sociation remains unlikely.

Sometimes a “ conversation cran be carried out belween
the subj(‘ct and his hand. The subject simply asks cjuc'stions
verbally, generally addressed to a spirit ]Hirporting to
“ inspire ” the writing, and the hand will write down answers
ill reply. An excellent example of this is jirovided by the
autonographic scrijits of Soak*

Soaks interest in psychical resc^areh brought him into
frequent contact with the cult of spiritualism. He was not
unduly surprised to find, therefore, on discovering his own

* Proc. s.P.P.y vol. as.

AtTOMATIC WKITINCr

149

faculty for autoiiogniphy, that it reflected a typical spirit¬
ualistOutlook. His autono/^raphic s(!ripts informed him
tJiat they we re inspired hy tJie spirit of a minor Victorian
poet named Mar^^aret Veley. Soak naturally, was not able
to take these claims at face value and r(‘Co^nised that the
pseudo-personality inanifesteMl in his autono^raphic script
was the product of his own subconscious jnind. He was
neverth(‘less prepared to believe in the possibility that the
knowl(‘dj:^(‘ h(‘ ('vineed of the lon^r-dcad Mar^^aret Veley
miji^ht have l)(‘('n acepiired by s\ieh means as tele][)athv or
<‘lairvoyanee. llis hand <li(l everythinjir in its pow(T to
persuade its sceptical owikt that he was wrony in rejeetinf^
th(' spiritist i xplanation of the autono^raphw Soal asked
<|U(‘stions and the liand repli(‘d.

A perusal of these scTipts reveals th(‘ (^xtent to whi(*h
the aulonoeraphist's own dissociated mental {m>eesses
can delil)eratelv set out to deceive the eoitseious personality
The resultin^r eonvc‘rsations " have the appt‘a,raiH‘e of
beiii^^ written by two entirely different ])eoplt‘. The arf^u-
ments. subterbi^es and ri'd-herrin^s produee<l by the pseudo¬
personality in iir^in^ the aeee|)tanee of its bofui fidcs as th(‘
spirit of the* dead poetess, thouj^h eharacderistieally naive,
show a surprising in^camity. Soal himself was able to
r(‘eall next to nothing of Maryaret Velev's lilV and poetry,
with the result that the ananmt of fact vial corroboration
pro(lu<*ed by the pstMido-personality s(*(‘me(l to produce
stron^r printa Jarir vi\sv for the theory of accpiisition of
knowledo-e by telepathy. ehairvoyane(‘ or other super¬
natural means. There seems little doubt, howt'ver. that
tht‘ knowledge exhibited was due to eryj)t()mnesia.

That tile snbeonseious mind ordinarily retains a host
of memories b(\vond normal nrall is n well known fact.
In tin* plK'iiomenon of cnjptomnrsia wr witness a direct
cons(‘(jU(‘nee of this ; a memory is recalled, but iiieompleh'ly.
Cryptonmesia is the spontaneous revival of former mem-
ori(‘S, experiences, facts and items of knowd(*djre, without
the subject Ixing al)lc to recall in the least the eireuni-
stanees w'hi<*h originally attended them. Dissociation often
exai^^eratos this tendency, whi(*h accounts for th(‘ appe^ar-
anee of many elairvoyantly aeijuired items of know’-

150

Thi: PsYC'iioi.oGY THK Occvi/r

ledge by trance mediums, autonographists, crystal gazers
and the like. Reeaus(' tlie individual eoneerned is unable
to renuanber ever having acquired th(‘ piece of knowledge
in qu(‘stion, he puts it dow^n to tlu* operation of his own
‘^psychic powers’"—pr(*ferring in these sophisticated times
to avoid the term “ magic

A number of eases are recorded wherein the “ auto-
nographie personality ” writes with a. handwriting apju’ox-
imating in style to that of another person : with spirit¬
ualists the style imitab'd invariably purj)orts to be that
of soiTieone who is dead. Autonogra[)hie handwriting
often differs entirely from the nonnal handwriting of tin;
subject. The writing usually eonfornis to the role ])layed
by the pseudo-personality. For examj)l(‘, if a child is
the purported spirit-communicator, the writiiig will appear
round and ill-formed ; this phenomenon is (‘asily induced
by suggestion with hypnotised subjects, but it is worth
noting that such variations in style; are not always so readily
achieved ii» tlie normal waking state without considerable
practise.

This faculty of altering the style of the hand-writing is
sometimes combined with a cryptomnesic Jiiemory of a
dead person's handw'riting whi(‘h is th(*n unconsciously
imitated in the autonograpliic scripts. Sj)iritualists take
such instances as the culminating proof of the survival of
the dead in a spirit w'orld.

Allied to autonography is verbal automatism. Un¬
controllable verbal automatism is a common phenomenon
among psychotics, although, unlike; with hjsteria, the
process must b(‘ considereci more nearly jn(*(*ha.nical tlian
intellectual. Hysterical verbal automatism may be r(‘garded
as a convenient bridge betwe^en autonograjdiy and the
utterances of trance mediums. Such notorious pheno¬
mena known euphemistically as ‘‘ spe^aking w ith tongu(‘s ”
and “ preaching children ”, various kinds of inspir(‘d “ ec¬
stasy ” and “ diabolical possession ”, frecjmaitly involve
a degree of verbal automatism with subseqmait amn(;sia.

In certain other cases of hysterical v(‘rbal automatism,
the individual may b(; completely aw'arc; of wdiat h(' is

Avtomatic Whiting

151

saying, yet remains powerless to j)rcvent his mouth, tongue
and larynx I’rom operating; * nor is he able to control the
flow' of ideas. There are few people who have not done
a little “ automatie speaking ” on their own account. The
dreamer who talks in lus sleej), for example, may be sur-
prisi'd to learn that the psychological ])rocesses involved
are not so very far removed from those pertaining to many
cases of medi('val demon-))ossession!

“ Ciitleii, (J. II., Spcdkiiiii Tou^urs. p. I!»2.

Chapter Ten

SOMyAMin USM. FKiVKS AM) MULTIPLE
PKIISOS ALITY

TTin: T.AST cirAPTKH has <rivcii sodk* idea of tli(‘ of

cxpr(‘ssion wliich may he a(*liiev(‘(l hy mental aetivitv
clissoeiated from the normal ]>ro(‘ess(‘s of volition. Such
involuntary nuaital activity, however, may result in psyeho-
loj^ieal anomalies more speetacailar tlian autono^raphv-:
almost any form of overt human exj)ressiou may l)eeome
involved.

It has already l)een noted that, aj)art fnnn autono^raj^hy
proper, some hysterical subjects may paint pi(*tnres or evaai
<*oinpose simple music* autono^^raphic'ally. Some* psyeho-
lo^nsts mairdain that t)ie subject }i(‘r(* merely deludes him¬
self and others that he d(H*s these thin^rs automatically.
Very often this is clearly the ease*, ))ut such an int(*rpn,*-
tation call not always hold »rood.

TJierc* (*xists nowhere a broad dividing line betwc*en
such hystcri(*al phenomena as extreme* iiionoideie somnaiu-
})nlism, which is epute in\a)luntary and amiK*sie*, and sue*li
(*onseious ae*tivitie‘s as, for example, writing- a letter or
reckoning aee*onnts. Helw(*en the two extreine*s we lind
a fine* series of <rradatioiis which defy rigid and precise
classification. If we start at the; lower (*nd of the series
we eventually arrive* at a point whe*re it is impossible to
say whether a subje*et is writing automatically or whether
lie* is deluding himself that lie* is ; elements of both faedors
may lie* pri*se*nt and the* distine*liou no longer possesses
mueli signilie^anee*. Immediately 1k‘1ow tliis point in the;
s(‘rie*s. we; find e*ase*s where* the* evideaiee indic*ate‘s ffcmiine

SoMNAMllUlJSM AXl> Mx^LTlPLl’. PKItSONALlTY 15:^

involuntary automatism as tho prcdominatinjj factor,
and immediately above it elements of conscious deception
arc‘ plainly discernibl(‘. A^ain, we (;aii observe (iases where
wishful thinking, su<j[f^estion or an irrational impulse to
imitation, is respoiisible for initiating an activity which,
at lirst sul)jeet to volitional control, rapidly dcvc^lops into
an involuntary psychological automatism.

On.e examj)le of this latter process is known as automatic
dancing or dancing mania. This phenomenon, which
was fairly (*ommon until th(^ turn of the present century,
is now a rarity. In tlu* past there have \wv\\ great epi¬
demics of dancing mania in countries as far apart as Mada¬
gascar and Holland. This (rurious form of mass liysteria
sometimes r(‘aeh(Ml tiu* proportions of a social numaee.
Music or percussion instruments set the feet dancing until
most ol‘ th(‘ po])ulation of a village or town may Ix' alleeted,
so great is the contagion. Tlu‘ dancers (lance in ecstasy
until utterly (exhausted. The performer's powers of en¬
durance are often ph(Miom<inal.

()<‘easionally one eomi's across old psychiatric cases of
hysterical iiulividnals who dai\eed while in a somnainhuUc
traiK'c. Some of these* subjects who had s(‘ar(‘(‘ly dane<*d
a step previously reaeh(‘d impressive* heights of chore¬
ographic expivssion. If these individuals eaf)italise*d their
unusual fa.(Milty tiiey were* billexl as “dream-dancers''.

It is a fact that the* hysteric* can fr(*(|U(‘ntly attain to
gr(‘at<*r facility, and eveai l)rillianee, of (‘xpression in writing,
sp(‘aking and acting during his “automatic" phase*s than
during his normal state of eons(*i()usn(*ss.

A perft'ct (*xamj)l(‘ of “ automatic ” be*havie>ur is sern
in monoideie somnambulism. With aeliilts. ordinary sleep
walking usually involves action without speech; with
children, on the oth(*r hand. sj)e*aking mon* often occurs
without any accompanying physical activity. In highly
hysterical individuals somnambulism may involve both
action and sj)cx*eh.

dinieal ease*s of liysterieal monoideie somnambulism,
how(*ver, are in a different category altogetluT, fre)m that
of the* occasional sle*ep-walker or slet'p-talker. Such som¬
nambulism may manifest itself as a vivid re-enaetrnent
of some tragic or terrifying seem in which the patit‘nt has

Till-: PsvnioLoiiY ok tiik Oih ri/r

ir>4

previously participated. Janet records many such cases.
Th(‘ })aticut will go through the same actions that he went
through at the time of his original experience in a grotesipie
and pathetic [)ant()mime. In extreme cases this hyster¬
ical pantomime may take place st^veral times a day without
any variation. In such eases it is a general c*haracleristic
tliat the })atient cannot nauember the original exj)erience
wlii(*li he mimics so faithfully during the somnainbulic
state of consciousness. Ity psyehoth(‘rapy, how(‘vei\ this
mcMnory can lx* rest(»red to the patient and his somnambulic
attacks th(‘n e(‘ase hu'thwitli. During such attacks, which
seldom last long, a limited personality is se(*n to have enu‘rgcd
quit<* dilferent from that of the sulqeet in his normal waking
state.

In monoideie somnainbulism the tt*mj)orary p(*rsonality
manifest(*d is naturally a very eir(*mnserib(‘(l one. In
advanced eases of polyideie somnambulism, how<‘ver,
W(* witiu‘ss the* beginnings of a true secondary jXTsonality.
Tile behaviour of such somnambules can be* \ari(*d in the
extreme, and th(‘y may even walk and talk as in normal
life* (*X(*ept that Ihey arc* living through a kind of dr(*am,
oblivious to the* events around them. \Vht*n th(‘\ are
deeply hypnotis(*d almost any form of dream " can be*
suggestc'cl ; in such instane(*s we witness true hypnotic
somnambulism involving genuine dissociation or “ trance*
Movl instances of hyi>notic "'somnambulism'' are attribu-
tal)le to imitative or mimetic resj)onses to tlie operator's
suggestion.

C'as(‘s of prolongcnl somnambulie statc*s liave cK*easirmally
b(*en r(*port(*d. Several of these have (*xhibit(*d a wide
range of intelligent activity. This type* of somnambulism
may be* r(‘garded as a. rudimentary form of dual-person¬
ality. Other instances which exhibit many of the* eharac-
teristies of somnambulism can only be termed jiartial-
somnambulism, for the subject redacts intelligently when
s])ok(‘n to and answcTs (juestie»ns asked by those around
him. There is, in fact, a graduated s(‘ri(\s of somnambulic
type*s, ranging from the* patient who sulfers from the^ re¬
petitive pantomimes just di'scribcd, to forms of ])artial-
somnamliulism in whicli th(‘ patient exhibits a complete
new personality ccjual in many respects to the normal

SoMN AMliri.ISM \N1) Ml/LTllM.i: i^’.KSOXALITY 1:15

self SO Ifir as iiit(‘lli^^cn(*(‘ is concerned. This soinnainhulic
jKTsonalily, liowcvta*. usually lacks all memory of the
suhjc^ct's normal waking lih* and nnicmbcrs only those
incid(ads and c\))(‘ri(‘nces which have o(*curr(‘d durini^
j>r(‘vioiis soinnainhulic jdiases.

This s(‘l(‘cliv<‘ continuity of nuMiiory is characl<‘ristic
of luuarly all such dissoeiat(‘d state s of <*onsciousncss. The
patient lias virtually a(‘(|uired two jx rsonalitics. the normal
OIK' and tlie somnambulic e)n(‘. and between the two (here
is a watc'rti^dit compartment throucli which IIk‘ nuinories
])crtaininc' to each perseniality cannot inliltratc. II(»wc\(T
all sonmambulcs are* easily livpnotise^d and oiux* Iin ])not is(‘d
tlie j)ati(‘nt can i^e'iicraliy be made; to ncall tli * (‘xpericncevs
of his jirevious somnambulic pliascs.

It. occurs somctiiiK's tliat a partiabscmmambiilic person¬
ality emerges wliieh lasts, n(»t for just a b vv minutes or
hours but Ibr elays. In such instanc(‘s oni* can no loni’cr
sj)(‘ak of somnambulism, for this would l)c stret<*liine: an
alr(‘ady o\iTWorkc(l word too tar. 'llc'sc arc tin* cases,
popular with authors and journalists, known colloipiially
as loss of iiK'inory * and l(‘(*hni(*ally as Oiu* day

a man may \vak<‘ up unable l(» identify liis snrroimdincs,
iiiiabh* t.(» I’ccall his name, his address, his frit nds and n‘la-
tives or his occupation. If h(* visits a psychiatrist, this
hysterical syndrome can In* cunal without mucli troulile.
I’ascs liave* fairly often occurred, howc\(*r, wliieh have
lasted Ibr months or cna’Ii years.

Th(‘sc fugues arc n‘al clianifcs of pe rsonality. All tiiose
elements of the personality which have* hitherto bee n re-
]>rcsscd siuldvaily take e*har*jre e>f tlie* pe‘rse»nal consciousness.
They arc very coinmemly the* result e»f livinj^’ a life* beiunel
by uncon^e’uial eluty or moral oblie;at.ie>ns sue‘h as are* e>ce‘a-
sioiH'd by family, work, and sex'ial consiele‘ratieuis. Kmo-
tional stress or shex’k can brin^ about the* same* re*sults.
The subj(*e*t detests his mexte* of lix in^ anel lonurs te) (*se*ape‘
from it., but tlie'sc ideas arc sternly represseel anel ke‘pt
out of his (‘onscious the)u^ht.s. Suelde*nly the re'prevssion
fails, |)crhaps on account, of some* shock, anel the* re‘pre‘sscel
part of his pcTSonality ciiktjjjcs. brinjjrinjr in its turn re¬
pression e)f all IV^rmcr mcmorie*s anel a conseMjueait laeaina.

i5r>

Tin: Psyc‘H()lo(;y ok i iik Ocvui.t

The j)ati(Mit now loads a life of rolativo fn'cdoiu, no longer
restrained by foriiKT duties or his eonseienee.

The fat(‘ of sonK‘ of those who suffer from fugu(‘s is some¬
times a very pl(‘asant oiu'. There is mon* than one ease
of a man building uj) a business and marrying again under
sueli eireumstanees. The subject may also show surprising
(‘IVieieiuw at jobs for whi<*h, so far as his normal self was
eoiHHTiud, he pr(‘viously eared little. Ollur east‘s art^ not
so fortunate, and a fugut* often rc'sulted in extreme hard¬
ship in days when the medical and public siTviees wen*
not so knowledgtabk* or extensive* as they an* today. In
tile l(‘ss eivilis(‘d parts of the* world su(*h as India, fugu(‘s,
in common with other s(‘vere liysteri(‘al syndrome's, are
r(‘latively frc'enient.

In the normal course of events, unl(*ss he* visits a psychi¬
atrist, the* patient usually retains ne) memory of his fugue
{)erio(l wlien his normal personality spontaiu'eiusly re*-
ass(*rts itself. He takes up the- thre*ad e)f his life at llu*
point at which his fugue occurred.

The- fugue is esse-ntially an (*seaf)t‘ from an une-ongenial
enviromne-nt. The escape* nudive is be-hind most tyjie-s
of hysterical ailment. The- motive- itse-lf remains hidden
from the* jiatienrs perseinal aware-m-ss so that lie is no
longer beitlu-re-el by his e*onse-i(*nee’ anel e-onside-rations e)f
duty. Hy feirge-tting his past he no longe-r fe-e-ls bound to
it.

There- are- se-ve*ral elise*ernible variatieins of the hysferie*al
fugue-. Altnnatin^ jjrrsonalitf/ is e)ne sue-h e-xarnple-. The*
patie*nt may alternate- e-ve-rv se> often be‘twe*en his normal
perseinality anel liis se-eondary one and back again. Whore
amnesia eK*e*urs, the* se-eejiielary phase-s may be- rt-garded
e ithe r as mineir fugue-s or major se)mnambulisms ae*(*e)rding
to the* dominant eharaete-risti(*s. Janet re-e*e)rds the e*ase
of a Fr(‘ne*h village- girl wlu) kept a. small sheip anel whe)
unelerwe-nt at inte-rvals a e^omplete ehange- of pe-rsemality
aceeirnpanie-el by amnesia. She ge*ne*rally se nse*el when these*
attacks we-re- eenning ejii, anel if she was eleiing anything
important at the* lime of the* (*hange- she- maele- a note of it
on a pie-e*e‘ of paper. Hy this means she* was able, when
the ehange* oee-urreel, to e*arrv on with he*r work witheait
being troubl(*el bv her le)ss e)f ine-morv.

SoMNAMBTM.isM AM) Mi’i/ripu: Pkrsonamty

157

Loss of in(‘inorv in sncli (*ns(*s is, oi course', a relative
inatlcr. Fiach of the patient's two jx rsonalities. the normal
one ami tlu' seeomlary one, possesses its e)wn stream of
ineinorv. In the fu^nil sta^jfe the ])atient will n'call only those
rru'niories and ('xp(‘rii*nees which oeeurrc'd during previous
fu^nd phases. l'h(‘ intervenin<{ periods remain blank.
Similarly the memory pertaininj^ to tlu' normal personality
will not include' those e'Xpe'rienees whie*h toeik place' elurin^* the*
fuyal ])erioels. The ]>a1ieni iluis posst'sses two separate
stre'ams of memory, (‘aeli in its own imj)e'rnie'able compart¬
ment. The same thing may oce*ur in ree*iirrent hy|)nosis.
Tile operator, if ne)t e*are‘f\d, may literally e*reate a sceeinelary
amnesic |)eTse>nality in (‘e^rtain hysterical subjects who are
liypnotise'el very fre*(|uently.

In a fair number of ense^s e)f alternating personality,
amnesia may occur eluring the se‘e*onelary pliase* of e*onscious-
iH'ss but the*re' is m) e*orresponeling anuu'sia each time
the subjee't re*e'e)ve‘rs his ne)rmal peTsonality, i.e*. while in his
normal state* the subject's me'me)ry e-ove'rs hath jiliases aiiel
is e'ontinuous. The same thing may eu'emr vice vcm/. The
subject is tlu'ii saiel to be one-rvay amiiesic, Tlie* same
])hcnomenon may exrur in e-ascs of multiple* pe'rsonalily and
in true hypnotie* somnambulism.

The e*ase e)f the* Frene*h girl mentioned al)e)ve is one of the
most extrae>rdinarv in the* history of ])athole)gie*al ]iyste*ria.
II(*r normal pe-rsonality was slove nly anel c'lice'rh'ss and with¬
out mucJi in1cllige*nce. During her fugal phase's she* exhibited
a che'eTful anel livi'ly elisj>ositie>n anel fe'lt full of ene rgy and
lu'alth. He'r intelligene*e* w^as e*e)rre*s])e>nelingly greater; the
change of jicrsonality w^as wry similar to that often seen in
jisyehasthenie ])atie*nts wlie) are* give'ii e*le*etrie* shoe*k the‘raj>y.
At first lu'r fugal pe rie)els wa're she)rt. Craehially they became
more* anel more e'xte'iisive until the*y e'ventually exeee'de'el in
duration lu'r p(*rie)els of normality." Finally her pe'riexls
of “normality ” be'came thei e*xeeptie»n and the oe*e*asional
short reversie)ns te) her e)lel perseinality e*ame to be le)f)ke‘el upon
as an unfeirtunaie malady.

Whe'U, as e)fte*n e)ceurs in hyste*ria, the* normal mechanism
of re'pre'ssion w^orks e)ve'rtime, a gre'at many emotionally-
toned ideas and meme>rie*s may l)e*(H)me rej)resse*d to fe)rm an
organised e‘omplex wdiieh cannot reach the* threshold o

15S

'rm: Psychoi.oc.y of tiik Ocrui/r

personal awanMU'ss. Il is such eotnplex(?s which may lead
to soninambulisiu, ami to fugues and alternaiin«v or multiple
personality, which may he regarded in some respects as
extreme d(*\elopni(‘nls of polyideie somnambulism.

Some psyc'holo^ists employ the sound method oraeeountinj?
for sucli hysterical di‘\ (‘loj)menls of nuadal Iif(‘ by comparing
tluMii with the normal pro(*(*ss(*s of which they may be re¬
garded as (‘\a^o(‘rat i(ais. Lapses of memory are common
enoujrh in ordinary ( Veryday e\ist<‘n(‘i‘, as also ar(‘ chan<^es
of nuiod. KvtTVoiu' is liable to ab(‘rrations in conduct at
OTIC tinu‘ or another; h)?* (‘xample, a man in a temper docs
not exhibit tin* same type of rca(‘tions as wh(‘n lie is fcclin^r
pl<‘ascd and happ\. Tlicsc normal lapses of memory and
labii(‘ eHeets ar(‘ of tlu^ same kind as those (‘iicoimbTcd, in
mon^ pronounc(*d and siistain(‘d form, in multiple personality.

The hysterical syndrome of multiple pca'sonality is often
confused in tlie j)ublic mind with tlu‘ type of insanity now
known as .srlnzophrcnia and formerly as danculia ftmecox,
Schi/ophrenia, a term w!ii(‘h deriv(‘s from the ancient (ircek,
means literally, " sj)lit-mind.'' I'he confusion aris(‘S from
tlu‘ 1end(‘ney I'f tlu* layman to refer to eases of dual or multiple
personality as '\split pcTsonality" or split, mijid." In
actual fact, schi/ophrenia has little conn(‘ction with hys¬
terical changes of personality.

Tli(‘ first seientilic ai’eount of a ease of multiple j)crsonality
was that of Mary Iteynolds, published by the Amcri(‘au
j)sycliolo<^nst KIlieott. in LSI a. In literature Robert Louis
St(‘V(‘nson holds pride of place* for the use of tin* thimu* of
alternating personality in his famous story of Dr. Jckyh
and Mr. Hyde," altliou^h ICd^ar Alan Por* was tlic first major
liU rarv figure to make us(* of the phenomenon.

The most celebrated ease of muUiplt* personality is the
well-know ReancJiainp case investigated by Morton Prince/
fomid(*r and editor of the American Journal (tf Abnormal
Fspcholo^fj. Prince’s Instcrical })aticnt, knowm as Miss
Beauchamp, (xhibited four distinct and separate persona¬
lities, three of which possess(‘d their own separate set of
memories. Her original personality, Bl, was studious,
submissive^ shy, religious and i)oor in health. Her other

* f'. i’K"*, M., Thr Dissnrifition of a Pvrsoualihf : A Biographical Slutlp in
Abnormal Psychol Off If, N.V.

SoMNAMlUTlJSM AND MULTIPLK PkHSONAMTY

pprsolwility, P4, was self-assertive, wordly. irraseit)le and
Viiin, iiit()l(‘rant of religion, and possessing abundant h(;altli
and vitality. Th(' two personalities w(Te, in faet, the
eoinpleinentary sides of her eharaeter. Neither appeared to
possess any ineniory of (‘aeh other’s mental life or experi(‘ne(‘s,
although l)olli (‘ould r(*niemb(T the evaaits in Miss Ihaiu-
ehamp's life up to th(‘ lirst emotional crisis six years before.
Ji4 heartily (Iislik(‘d all that Hi liked and often played spiteful
trieks upon hi r during* the foriiier’s pca-iods of ascrendenee.
Hi had dilh ri nt friends from H t. They eommunieated by
writing nol(*s and placing them wiuaa* the other would find
theni. The ehany(‘s of p<Tsonality wen* fnqiKait. Th(‘
result was ( xaetly as if two entirel\^ antagonistic people
inhabited tli(‘ same body for alleiaiatt* p(*riods of time.
Kmotional crises over two love alVairs had brought al)out th(‘
excessive repressions n'sponsibU* for the persoiiaUty ehai\<^es.

This Jekyll-and-IIyde existence was further complicated
by the emerge* of a third personality who ehristeiu‘d herself
"" S(dly.'’ Dr. Prince had [ireviously betai treating Miss
Heauehani]) by hypnotic su^^estion. and Sally was a tyj)icid
hypnotic tranc'c personality, (‘hildish ami irresj>onsible.
Such H'^ressive personalities may be observed in sonu* ty})es
of hysterical somnambulism and in tlu* artificial somnam¬
bulism produced by de(‘p hypnosis. The se(*ondary per¬
sonalities of spiritualist me<liums arc often of tlie sanu' order,
only in tJuar case tlu* secondary personality focus(‘s around
th(' idea of a discarnate spirit, owinj^ to the influence* of
spiritualistic ideas acting upon a suggestible (and often
hysterieal) mind.

In Miss Heaiudiamp’s ease tlun* is no doubt that the
emerge ru'c of “ Sally ” was a hypnotie* j>h(*noiucnon due to
indirect sugg(*stion by Dr. Prince. Her autobiographical
writings exhibited lier as a soul suppressed for most of its
( urly life and linding at long last access to the joys of com-
juunieation with the world of human beings ! Hi was aware
of Sally's existence but H4 was not, until informed by
Dr. Prince and by hitters from Hi.

Morhin Prince, with the aid of repeated hypnotherapy,
gradually synthesised the two antagonistic personalities of
Hi and H4 into a well-balanced personality who commanded
the memories of both of them. Sally fought this fusion

160

Tjik Psyc iic>ix>(;y of tiik Occui/r

tooth and nail, claiming that she felt she was being squeezed
out of existence. With the fusioii, however. Miss Beaiiehainp
no longer suffered from hysterical syiiij)toms, and Sally,
who latterly had been emerging spontan(?oiisly from time to
time without hypnosis, died a natural death.

While fugues and simple dual or alternating personalities
may be oftim regarded as spontaneous hysterical syndromes,
multiple personalities arc generally due to indirect siigg(‘slion
on the part of the psychotherapist. Often the psycho¬
therapist has inadvertently brought about the cinergence of
yet further personalities by faulty hypnotic tcclinicjue.
Janet’s subject, Leonie B., who developed two subsidary
personalities with amnesia, is an excellent cuae in point. But
the record must surely be claimed for tfur case of multiple
personality reported by Dr. R. M. Riggall in The Ijancet
in 1931.* This subject, an unmarried woman of 37, was
report(‘d to have no less than seven distinct personalities !

This case pres(*nts unusual parallels with the Beauchamp
case. Thc^re \vere two major personalities, “ Mal)el ” and
“ Miss Dignity,” each complementiiry and antithetical.
Mabel was religious, prudish and reserved, while Miss Dignity
was spiteful, bold, totally lacking in modesty and bent on
tormenting Mabel. Dignity tore up Mabel’s rnotiey, rif)ped
her clothes, broke her ornaments and on one occision in¬
serted a l)roken wniu^glass in her vagina ‘‘ to annoy Mabel.”
The glass had to be removed by Dr. Riggall. There was a
third ])ersonality who styled herself Biddy, whose status
corresponded to the Sally of Morton Princc^’s case. Biddy
was a bright, ehe(?rful, laughing, helpful personality. There
was total amnesia between each personality and they spc^iit
a consid(*rable amount of time writing antagonistic letters to
each other. On(* letter from Dignity to Mabel advised
suicid(‘, saying that the letter enclos(^d a packet of [)oison.
The handwTitings of all were markedly (lifferent in style.
Apart from these three? personalities there were four othcTS
who made occasional appciarances uruhir hypnosis and which
were undoubtedly due to indirect suggestion by the psycho¬
therapist.

Although Dr. Riggall succeeded in fusing the persoua-
» The Lancet, Oct. 17th., 1931, pp. 846-848.

SOMNAMIUIMSM AND MlTLTIPI.K PflRSDNALlTY 101

lities })y hypnotic treatment he failed to euix* the uncl(‘rlying
neurosis, the pati(Rit refusing to uiul<Tgo furtluT psycho-
analyti(‘al treatment for this.

Dr. RiggalTs explanation tor the a]>pcarane(* of the
secondary f)ersonaIity, self-styled “ Dignity,” is a sound one.
Dignity, desi)ite her name, represent(‘<l the instinctive side
of the patienTs natun*. In the part filayed by Dignity, this
inslin(*tive side gained an outlet and was ablt* to find satis¬
faction in the fullilrnent of hitherto rtj)ress(‘d anti-social
urges. Mab(rl represented the law-abiding civilised side of
till* |)atient\s character and was liiaiee the larg(‘t of Dignity’s
anti-social instincts. The (*merg(*rK*e of Dignity was t)rought
about by <lramatising and personifying thi* repress(*d material.

This last conclusion is of particular interest, for we can
see this process of personifying thi* repressed ideas and wishes
in dramatic form in many hysterical syndromi s ; in many
examples of autornatiir writing, somnambulism, and in.var¬
ious trance* states as (*xemplificd by the spiritualistic medium.
This is (easily understood as far as it stands ; what is dilJicult
to ae(‘ount for is the toUil amnesia between one personality
and another. This need not always be attributed to con¬
scious deception, as some psychologists an* inclined to
believe. As noted elsewhere, marked phjis(‘s of amnesia are
found frcijuently among lon(!ly peopli* with tendency to
hysteria, who have a habit of talking to themsidves Avhile
day-drearning or while “ in a brown study.” Long mono¬
logues and even “ conversations ” may thus be hidd, but
as soon as they are disturb<*d they ^"corne to” with a start;
realising that they have been talking aloud, they f(.*el an
extremity of embarrassment if they suspirt that they have
been overheard. Frequently they are able to r('call only the
last few words or sentences of what they W(*re saying and
cannot recollect the rest with any cerUiinty unless they are
able to think back and “ hear ” themselves talking. It is
to be noted, too, that many people who fall into habit of
talking to themselves often visualise themselves in dramatic
situations where they allow their emotions to guide their
thoughts and imaginary actions on a level closed to them in
actual life.

It should be emphasised that although some eases of
multiple personality may give a primafade impression that

162 Thk Psychology of the Occur/r

each personality possesses a continuous mental life eo-con-
scions with that t)f the j)ersonalitv which is in the ascendant,
such an impression is incorrect. As a working hypothesis
the concept of co-consciousness may be perfectly valid.
Taken as an empirical fact, however, it becomes quite mean¬
ingless. There is no continuous conscious existence for these
personalities.

Chapter Eleven

THE SPIRITUALISTIC MEDIUM AND
MEDIUMISTIC TRANCE

TTiii: ( iJLT OF SP11UTT.1ALISM iiiid tlio spiritualistic medium is
a modern development of primitive^ sliamaiiism. A notice-
al)le difference between primitive sliamanism and modern
mediumship is that with the former the practitioners are
generally men. while present-day western mediumship is
geiu‘rally jiraelised by women. Modern spiritualism, unlike
shamanism, diflVTcntiates between two types of medium,
namely “ physical mediums and ‘‘ nnaital ” mediums.

'rhe “physical’’ iuedi\ui\ specialise* in the production of
so-called “ physical phenomena *’ “ psy<diic ” lights, ecto-

piasm, visible spirit forms, movements of objects at a
distance, levitation, spirit raps, bumps and knocks and a
large number of other elementary conjuring tricks and illu¬
sions. These tricks naturally require varying shades of
darkness for their jXTformance and are claimed to be due
to the activity of discarnate spirits.

Th(‘ “ mental ” nu'dium on the other hand purports to be
solely th(* wouthpiecc of the spirit world ; her utterances,
while* in a stab* of trance*, are supposed to b(* inspired or
directly controlled by the spirits of the dead—a feature
which she shares in common with the “ physical ” medium.
The “ physical ” medium is almost invariably a conscious
fraud. Ihit while the “ mental ” medium may also be
fraudulent, slie is often sincere in the sense that her trances
may be genuine instances of dissociation, or allied states
of consciousness, and that sh<* believes in the supernatural
significance of such trance states. Both types of mediumship

Thk Psyciioi.ocy of Til?: Occuit

H)1

iirc as old as iiiaiikiiid, but it is comparatively reeeiitly that
the shamaiu in tlu^ piTson of the spiritualistic iiicdiuni of
western civilisation^ has begun to speeAalisc in the ditVerent
branches of the trade.

The object of the pr(‘sent chapter is to inverstigate the
psj'chology of the genuine ‘‘‘ mental ” medium, whose
various states of tranei' still hold millions of otherwise
reasonable people in a happy condition of superstitious
awe, wonder and fre(|uent emotional stress. A study of the
rncdiumistic trance is not oidy interesting in itself but throws
a good deal of light from an altogether new angle upon
dissociated states of (‘onsciousness. It is thcrt‘fore well
worth whil(‘ going in de tail into this fascinating realm in
which th(* s|)urious and th(‘ genuiiu‘ reciprocally support and
mutually benefit the other.

Amongst the well known psychologists who have invt\sti-
gated the mediumistie trance are Jung,* Flournoy and
William Brown. Of these* ordy Flournoy, one-time Professor
of Psychology at (leneva thiiversity, can V)e sai<l to have
made a really extended study ot the subject. Flournoy
investigated at great length the trance states of the medium
wliom he made famous, Klisc Muller, betU^r known to the
world as Ilclcne Smith. Jung’s medium presented many
affinities to that of Flournoy.

The majority of mediums may be said to be wittingly
fraudulent i.e. they act a part with a view to monetary
gain. On the other hand at the other (^nd of the scale, there
is the medium who believes completely in the spiritualistic
credo, who docs not eonscously act a part during her trance,
and who seldom resorts to conscious deception. This type
of medium may b(* considered the exception. In biitween
there exists a large class of professional and amateur mediums
who possess a genuine enough faculty of attaining to dis¬
sociative and quasi-dissociative states of consciousness in
varying degree and who improve upon them by artifice.
Simulation of tranc(! states is, of course, very easy, and it
is this which renders investigation of the more intelligent
spiritualistic mediums so difficult. Many a professional
medium who once possessed a real trance faculty (‘uds up
by simulating article simply because she finds it easier.

» Jung, r. G., Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, 1020, pp. 10-45.

SPIRITUAI.ISTIC MkDUTM AND MeDIUMISTIC TrANCE 165

Traiico is a very looser term which cinbraces a number of
widely differing psychological states ; these range in degree
from the cataleptic (?oma of some “ ecstatic ” (lervishes to
the ordinary daytina* reverie^ when one’s thoughts arc; said
to be miles away Tn common with many other popular
terms whicrh have jiassed ir)to psychology, no precise d(‘fini-
tion is available. The “ somnambulic* trance* of the slcc*p-
walkc'r, the “ hypnotic trance ” of the hypnotised subject,
the “yoga-trance” of the auto-hypnotised Indian mystic,
the “ cataleptic trance ” of extreme hysteria, the “ ecstatic
tranc’c* ” of euphoric and liallucinatecl saints, shamans and
visionari(*s all possess one factor in c*ommon, namely a
temj)orary forg<;tfulness or unawarc*nc'ss of the irniruHliate
physi<*al environment. This is perha})s the chief hallmark
of the tranche*, llnawarencss of objects and people in the
surrounding environment iu*c‘d not be total—it may he
hazy or anoetic^ 0!i the p(;ri|)hc;ry of consciousness.

In its fvillest development, the trance vs accompanied by
c.xtreme mental dissociation and automatism. At the other
end of the scale there is a form of mild trance*, engendered by
wishful-thinking, self-decc*ption or auto-suggestion, when the
subject’s peculiar actions and speech originate primarily in
a. neurotic d(!sire for attention. Again, there is the fake
trance, which among professional spiritualistic mediums
is the commonest of all.

Nevertheless, “ The capacity to j)ass into a trance-like
state may be facilitated by practise and some mediums
have developed this capacity very markedly.”*

Subjects who are in a condition of abnormal suggestibility
—for example, that engendered by hypnotic methods—are
often r(*f(Trcd to as being in a state of “ trance ”. Tin; term
is also applied to the periods of rapt contemplation which
mystics are able to engender at will or which occur spon-
faneously. The techniques of attaining to a trance state
are various, often involving an artificial over-stimulation
of the emotions and senses, or unusual exercises in respira¬
tion. Hypemoea, or very rapid breathing, may even
result in rigid cataleptic “ trance ”.

Drugs may also produce a kind of “ trance ” in which the

• Curran and Giittnmnn, Psychological Medici p. lOa.

lf)6 Thk PsYcnoiAKiY OP THE ()(X’Uj;r

subject possesses little desire to exert his own will and
speaks and acts in a sleepy daze, not fully conscious of what
he is either saying or doing. Hysterical and psychasthenic
individuals, and individuals with a tendency to minor
forms of psychosis, may experience periods of tranee-like
states in wdiich they are not fully conscious of their actions
or speech. The term “ trance is also applied sometimes
tf^ individuals who experience periodic phases of stupor
or extreme lethargy or vvvn coma. Many mediums appear
to sink into such states spontaneously at the commencement
of their seances, though the gn^at majority undoubtedly
simulates thesti symptoms.

The term ‘‘ trance ” may be seen to Ix^ a vagu(‘ unsatis¬
factory oii(‘. The eoiKicpt to which the te rm gives expression
originally arose in connection with the primitive belii^f,
held since time imiiKanorial, that a person who exhibits any
of the various symptoms described abov(‘ has had his soul
drawn away from liis body. The theme of the soul [)arting
temporarily from the body is a common one in all eliims
and in all ages and is still prevalent in many parts of the
WT)rld at the present day.

Many trance states of the spiritualistic nu'dium arc
attributed to hysteria; but otluTs do not fall into this
cahigory. Between the two lies a large class wliieli may
best be described as mild forms of automatic s[M‘aking,
partly du(‘ to hysterical lend(‘ncies, partly due to auto-
hypnotie practices, j)artly due to suggestion. As with
automatic writing, tliese mild trance states can b(* aeejuired.
Like automatic writing, too, total amnesia eaji sup<‘rvene,
i.e. the subject is not able to recall anything writU'ii or
spoken during trance. It is not often fully ncognised that a
great deal of automatic writing is produced in as nnieli of a
trance stat(‘ as the verbal utterances of nu‘diums.

So far as the spiritualistic medium is eone(Tn(*d, we ca.n
observe two distinct typ(‘s of trance, apart froin those* which
an' simulated from base motives. The most interesting (jf
these, and the least common, arc those which involve an
abnormal dc'gree of m(*ntal dissociation or automatism. The
second type, less easily definable, involves the acting-out of
inward imaginative^ fantasies conditioned by tradition and
sugg('stion. Wc will deal with this second type* first.

Spiritualistic Mkoium and Mediumistic! Tranc e 107

Wo have? alrc^ady made* some mention of* clay-time reveries
and of people who are /ijiven 1o talking to themselv(*s while
temporarily oblivious of their immediate environment. This
is pre^eisedy what is involved in the eas(‘ of many jnediums.
The clay-cireamir)g tendency has for them bc^en dc velopcxl
into a definite ncairosis, with c\seap(‘ i‘rom harsli reality as
the driving faetor. Many mediums have a history of lonely
childhood l)ehind tln in, and several, whose biographies are
known, possessc'cl in early (*hilclhood what is known in
psycihology as i\\\ imaginary compaaio)^, wlio took tlur {)laee
of the playmates tlic\v lac‘k(‘cl. \ormally only verv sensitive
children rcwcTt to an imaginary c*ompanion in their lonelinc*ss.
With thes(‘ thc\v indulge* in elaborate games and conversa¬
tions and will often talk to their parcaits or guardians about
th(‘ir fantasy-playmate with evcTV sign of (*onvietior] in its
rc-ality. Usually the imaginary eompanion fades out of
the child's (*xistc*nee wh(‘n the latter r(^ac‘h(\s the ag(‘ of six
or seven. Witli some* eliildren. howevcT, the habit of talking
to an imaginery person nuiy persist into adult life. In
some* extreme* eases tin* world of fantasy into whi(‘h the
adult falls bc*eom(*s so intense that she or he gradually
deteriorates into sustained delusions and eventually into
schizophrenia.

"Idle normal day-dream, even in the healthiest of in¬
dividuals, c’an become abnormally intense if the habit pt*r-
sists. Day-dreams and autistic thinking arc* a form of
outlet for frustrated or reprc*ssed wishes and instincts. By
this means the individual is able to achieve a vicarious
gratific!ation of natural longings for love, authority, w(‘alth,
bcTiutv, sc'X, or anything else which the human soul c»an
desire. In sc*Iiizophr(*nia the subject accepts the* day-dre^am
world of fantasy for reality,and the (*ur(* is gem^rally a Imig
and clifTercait process where it is not altogeth(T an impossi¬
bility.

Krotic! and sexual day-drc'ains arc by far the commonest
of all adult imaginative fantasies. Almost every normal
adult has indulg(*d in this form of fanbisy at one period or
anotlier of liis life. Krotic day-dreams may bec^ome such
vivid experiences for sexualh'^ frustratcnl individuals, par¬
ticularly women, that they engender a genuine trance* state

1()S The Psychology of the 0c( olt

of eonsciousHcss to which psychiatrists have t^ivon the name
nyvipholepsy.

Day-dreams may takt* any forim h()wev(‘r, and one ol the
commonest otall involvc'^* Jon^ monologues or conversations
between imaginary persons and the subject. Talkin^^ te>
oneself is v(‘r\ common with |)cople wlio la(*k human e()ni-
paFiionsJiij), and the proci‘ss is usually an involuidary on(‘.
Tlie individnars attention is directed away from tiu* external
cnvironnu'iit, and focuses instead on the' imajudFiativc fantasy
which the FuiFid is spontaFieously creating. The iialividual
Fuay not oidy address verbally th<‘ inui^inarv lover, iiu'llieient
cook, or hated (MKany. but also ^^esticidate^ with liis aians <»r
stride' furiously to and fro ; Iff (‘\tn‘in(* (‘ascs he Fnay indul<xe
in a coFupIcte pardcMuiFiK*, j)l(‘adiFi^L or (*ar(‘ssin^. or threatcFi-
iuj^, or lau^hiFiif. or even ^(e»in^’ throu^di all the* mot ion's ot
dyinir i»F oF’der to <»aiFi the* vieai'ious t^u’atification of an
iFua^inarv fuFu*ral with all the trappiFF;L»‘s. Iff such extreme
cases ol‘day-dreaming* the* subject is iFF\ ariably !Feure)tic aiFd
ovei'-s<‘nsitive by nature. If discoveresl in the* FFiidst of his
coFiv(‘F*satie»nal moiFoIo^ue or (‘me)tie)FFal paiFtoFFiimc, he or
she* will be fdleel with the* aeaitest e-iiFharrassFne'FFt. Usually,
however, the uiFsuspe'cte'el watcher paiFis only fle*(‘tiFi«^
iFn})ressions of the eFne)tioFFaI riFae'lstroFU occuriarF^ Iff the
day-dreanF(*r's iiiiFFd : a suddcFi fierce* ^^esturc or a f(‘W
incohcr(*Fit we>F'ds or brokcFi phrases are* all that are* obser¬
vable*.

The* ^rnat eme)tioFFal f(*rvour or e‘xe*ite*FiU*FFt wliich FiFuy
ae*compaFiy sue*h elay-eli'eaFU fantasies often re'FFde*rs the
indiviehjal ereiFFipletely absorbenl in Jiis ima^iFiative* world of
people, scene*s aFiel e*ve*FFts; while the* Fuood lasts, he is
oblivious of the we)rld of reality outsieic e>f him. Fe>r the
morncFFt the* imaf(iiFation suppliers the* reality. Occasie)FiaI
elay-dnams do nobody harm. It is when they Ikcofiic
prolon^n*d out e)f all re*ase>Fi eve*F) if the day-dr(*aFFi ?FFe*rely
take's the forFiF of a reverie that the* daF»fT(*r lie*s. Many a
habitual rcve‘rie-aeldie*t has travelled down the path te)
schizof)hre*nia. OftcFi this path is a wry pleasant one for
the persoFF coFice*rFie*d. Many a schizophr(*nic has livt'd in
a world of perpe*tual je)y aFid beauty ; uFifortuFiate*ly the* re¬
verse is the more like*lv.

Sp1R1TT\V1.1vSTU‘ Mkduim and Mkdiumistic Tranck 161)

ImR^^iiuiry coinpaiiions in childhood, the (l(‘ep r(‘verie, the
\nieons<*ious verhiil soliloquy, the emotional <lay-dreani
fantasy which is acted-out all arc examples of the way
in whieli the individual will turn to an irmer world of the
iiua^riiiiition when he is cut olf from the company of others
eitluT In force of circumstances or throuf^h the shortcoiniiigs,
of his own [)(*rsonality. Tliese examj)les throw an interesting
light (»n th(‘ personalities and trances of many spiritualistic
mediums. It is easy to understand how sucli (piasi-trance
states as I he <leep r(‘\ eri(', or such cpjirks of imagination as
imagiNary-eompaiiioiis. may become cemtred increasingly
arovmd spiritualistic ideas, once the subject’s mind has been
toueli(‘({ by tluMu.

P(H»ple gi\'(‘n to intense* day-dr(*aming and autistic thinking
are generally attracte<l by what appials to the imagination
and 1h(‘ (*m<»tions a function which spiritualism serves
pre-eminently well. Again, the lon(*ly, rc‘[)ressed or ill-
ada])te(l individual is normally far more* susceptible to the
iiifluenc<‘ of spiritualistic ideas than other j)eople. and the
(laV’dreamer b(‘longs largely to these* classt‘s. Ourr ffuch
day-drvanurs hranne introdurrd to the ideas (nf spiritiwlism.
it is <ndy to he ejpeeted (hat aunnj of them soon find their
reveries, sidiliupiies. e)aotioaa} fantasies and the rest, becoming
vmre and autre spirituatistie in content. In su(‘h cases,
the* more they in<*line to complete aece])tance of s|>iritualis-
lie teachings, the l<‘ss are they able to resist tin* wisliful
delusion that the s])iritualistic fantasies of their day-dreams
are < \ idenct* of clairvoyant powers or inspired by tl»e sj)irits
of the dead. From then on, it is but a short step to the
beliefs and practices of the amateur, and <‘ventually the
proh^^sional. spiritualistic nu*dium.

The practising medium soon ae<piires the knack of inducing
her (lee|) revt‘rie at will, without d(*lay and without self-
eonseiousness. In this she is helped by the tradition of her
profession and tlu* sympathy and coniidc nce of her sitters.
If th(‘ mediunTs trance is of the reverie type, her verbal
utterance may appc'ar ineons<*(piential, diseonneeted and
dr(*am-like. If it is an “acted-out fantasy om* that is
keenly felt by the nu'dium h(*rself we may expect anything
from emphatic staccato sent(‘nces or lyrical and fervent
outpourings, to liistrionics on the grand s(*al(‘. With the

MW 'V\\v\ w K\K\\ (Uw\:v

*nna^mary“(‘(>iuj)aiu<)n type of luediiuiK she may ^*iv(‘ th(‘
irnprt'ssion of eoiuliieta tt‘l(‘phone call wliieh is ])(‘in^
overheard at oik^ end.

The in1<‘I Icrtnal levt‘l (d‘ all day-dreaminn- aetivdtv is
naturally low, and it is therefore not surprising to find that
the utteran(‘(‘s of many tranee mediums ar(‘ charaotiTised
by a mark(‘d nu rital re^n‘<‘ssion. which r(‘suUs in a form of
speech more eoiisonant with that of a child than an adult.
On tile nlht'r hand, as with sonu* automatic writers, a small
number of mediums have e\hibited powers of imaj^ination
whi(‘h art‘ of a hiu[h (Tf'ative staiulard.

Several nusiimns af)pear to have aequiri'd the habit of
deseribino' their day-dr(‘am fantasit s v(Tball\ while* they are
oeeurriuo;. The majenaty of professional meelimus who do
this an* undoiitjtedly putting; on an ae‘t. 'rhis is not the
<*ase with all of them, Iioweve*!*. .Amone* those* whom we may
e*ile as ])rohal)ly authe ntic in this respect was the* vv(*ll-k:now'n
m(‘dium Mrs. \\ illet (])se:*udonym). whose* a!le*jredly para¬
normal '' powe’rs wear for y(*ars the* subj^'ct of in\i stififation
by the* Soei(‘ty for Psyehie*al Resear(*h. Mrs. \Vill(*t was irj
many ways a nifteel and inte‘IIii»ent woman, and although
nmeh e)f he r tranee sjieech was e*hilelish irj eharae*le'r, a ifr(‘at
deal of it was epiite tlie n ve-rse*. On e)ne‘ o<*easie)n she* be‘^an
a iirst persem eleseriplion of a scene in aiK*ieid Athens, which
anie)unl(*el to an ima<rinative* reeonstnie‘tion e)f an epise)de
take‘n from Plato s Sifm/nfsium. Tlie nieelium joyenisly
deseribe-el the Hell<*!ii<* scene* e)f her innurination with an
assurance which inelie*ateel tliat this parli(*ular reve*rie* was
eine whie*fi hael oft(*n ree-nrre el be-fore*. and that she* te*mporarily
ima^hne*(l herse-lf te) be partieijiatin^^ ire it.

The* elay-elreani type* of tranee*. when i»‘e*nnine‘ and ned;
assumed, may be* eoinjiareel te> the* stale* whie*h some p(*e)ple*
fall into when re-aetin^ an absorhiner ne>ve*l. Such pe*ople
may be spoke n to or even shemted at s(*ve*ral time*s befe)re tlu*y
realise* they are be*in^ aelelre*ss<*d. They an* in a state* of
<juasi-trane*e*, with the printe*d words .supplyin<y tlie* material
for lhe*ir imaj^rinjdion to weirk ujion, inste*ad of the imay;iiia-
tion spe)ntan(*onsly brin^in^ forth its own asse)e‘iatie)ns of
ideas as in the e*ase of the day-dre*amer. In both eases the
siibj(*et’s alte'iition is e*oneentrated inward, upon a sequene^e
of emotiourdly captivating e)r stimulating ide*as.

SV\VU’VV \\.\‘:^V\V WVA^WVI^ MyA>\V<’WI\VsY\V^ 'V\l\^i. V. \'7\

With many mediums tlu‘ irauee app<ars to he similar to
the hypnotic state. Tht^ medium lies down on a eou(*h,
relaxing e()mj)letely with eyes elosed, until a state of pas¬
sivity is attained. In this state- her spe-eeh ofU-n resembli-s
that of the sleep talker. In many easels wliere* th(‘ suhsetpjent
actions and speech of I in- medium re-semhle those- witnessed
in hy])ne)tie ‘‘ somnaTiihulism it is eviel(*!it that suijf^estie)n
is the* eiperalive prine-iple- ih) le-ss than in ne)rnial hypne)sis.
Ther main diffeTene-e lies in the* fae-t tliat normally in hy})ne)sis
suggestions are* ^iven dire*e*t hy the* e>perate>r. whereas in the
ease of the nM*elium the* su^^e^stion ele-rive s from the* state* <d‘
expex*taney ned e)nly on the* part of the* me-elium hut also of
he*r sitte-rs. In a niimhe r e>f e-ase-s we* may e*ve*n assume* the
existeiie*e- e)f a state of ee>mple*te auto-hypnosis.

It is a fa(‘t that a ^re*at many meeliunis are* liysteries
or are* strongly prone* lo hyste-ria. 'I'he* hysterical meelinm
is the true* me*(iiiim ; that is te> say she* may lx* snhjeel to
slates e)f e*onseie)Usness in wJiie*h the* ne>rmal j)roe*esse‘s of
volition appear to l)reak elown. prodneifie^ tlie ph(‘ne)m(*ne)n
of j^eiuiine* dissociation. Ove*rt i>r late-nt t<‘nde‘neies to
hyste‘rie*al dissociation e*an, as is se-en in liypne)sis. be- au^-
m(*nteel or eve-n brought alxait t)V me*ans of su^^^estiom and
it is in the Iii;Ljhly expee*tant anel su^j^e-stible* atTiiosphe-re <»f
the se*ane*e‘ rexuu that the* me*elium's faeulty of dissoe-iation
may manilest itself most stronj^ly.

()ne*c the* Jiahit of e*asily attaining’ a state* of mental dis¬
sociation is ae’liie ved thre)Ui»Ji e*onsla?il re pe-tit ion, tlie way is
eU*ar I'or the* me*elium to ^ive* expression to a whole* rani»e* (►(’
ima^inati\'e- fanlasie’s whie*h wmile! fiormally be nnavailal)l<*
to he*r. IIysle*rie‘al elissex-iat ion may proviele* e*om])i<*te
thou^di \ ie-arious outle t for tlie re*|)ressi*d te*udeneies, e*mo-
tional complexes anel late*nt memories wliiedi are tla-mselves
r(*spe)usi!)le* for the* me'dium’s hysleTia. Tli(*se. aful similar
disseuMative* slates of e*onseieMi.siu*ss, may be re‘^ar(l<*d as the-
real meeliumistie* lrane*e*

In most fe»rms e)f nu'eiiumistie trane*e* the meiliufii may
lu'ar, fe*e*l, se'e* and portray as fae*ts. e'vents which are the*
product of he r own imagination, or whievh are* elne* to aberra¬
tions e)flier e>wn me ntal proe(*sse*s. With liyste*ri(*al me'eliums,
espe‘eially, s!i(*h subjective* elelusious appear to be a deuniuaut
factor. Very freepieritly the medium may a])[)ear fe) l)e*

Thk 1\sych<)ix)(;y of tiik Occui/r

172

actually experieiK‘injv genuine hallucinatory scnsc-iinagery,
but tliis can seldom bo the cas(‘ (‘xcept with marked hyst;cri(rs
or incipient {)S\ elioti<*s. In the mediiimistie trance, as in
hysterical mmc.v/.s* and deep hypnosis, the boundary between
reality and illusion often fails, so that the subject actually
believe s for the time* in the reality of the world of fantasy
provid(*d by the imagination.

Where hysterical dissociation is jn’esent. the medium may.
in rare easels, be* subject to a form of vcTbal automatism,
In such cases the* trance state cngeaulereel e*an be* ce)inj)ar<‘el
to the state* of e‘e>nse*iousne‘ss observeel in aute)mati(* writing.
Hysterical ve*rbal automatism, however, may become se)
extreme that the snl)j(*ct caunut prevent the* te)ngue, lips and
larynx fionj e)perating the nie»te)r ae*tivity is epiite* involun¬
tary. In such instane*es the* subject may be able te) he*ar
anel understanel what he* is saying but re'iuains powcrle*ss
to f*ontrol his speech. A less cxtre‘me* Idrm e>f verbal aute)-
niatisni can l)e' indiie*ejel at will, much as the* aute)matie* write*r
induces autonograpUy. Some* hyst<‘ric;d mediums often
give* utterance to pure* gibberish which tht'V claim te) be* the
language* e)l‘ the* spirit world. This phe*ne)me*ne>n pre*sents
an inte*re‘sting parallel te> xe noglossia. e)r sp(‘aking with
te»ngue*s known te) rcligie)us niysti(*s in all ag(‘s.

The int(*rplay of hyslerie*al tendcne*ie*s, sngge*stie)n, autistic-
thinking, sube*e)nse*ie)ns me>tivcs, eh*lil)erate* franel, aiite)-
hyi>ne)tisation, eiisse)e*iatie)n and aute>matisn) rcnd(*rs it
virtually imj)e)ssible te) pin ileiwn the* meeliurnistic trance
anei its varie)us manifestations to any rigiel sche*me* of psy-
che)le)gical classification. Many me‘eliums. te)e), are* mentally
unbalanee*d to a (h*gr<*(‘ wliiedi ve rge s e)n ae*tual insanity, and
only the me)st creelnle)us among their clumging e*lie*ntele‘ e)f
sitters can remain blinei te) the* fae*t. W ry many me*eliums
she)w n)arkeel evielene*e of paranoia. One* such e*ase‘ was that
of the* (ierrnan ine*eliuni, Mina Miille r, wlie) was inv(?stigat(*d
by Dr. Funfgclel e)f the Frankfe)rt rniversity Psychiatry
Flinie*. ’

Fimlgelel, though at first sympathetic te) the* ineMlium’s
claims, found her rcputcMl e*lairve)yant faculty to be without
the le*ast fe)undatie)n. He* founel a markcel tendenery to

* Ze^itschrift fiir eJir gesamte* N(;iire)l<)gie* unci J*sye*liiatrie*, vol. <‘\ix.

Spirit Pkrsonamtiks ”

i7;j

panifioia involving a strong desire to make her mark in the
world, a total ineapaeity for self-eritieism, an inability to
aeeept the simplest rational argument when it tendf d to run
counter to h(*r fix(*(l ideas, and above all a subjeetive delusion
of the rightness of all that sh(‘ said. She sustained this
attitude dt‘spite the glaringly obvious fact that she resorted
to eonseious (leeej)tion wlu ii the* least opportunity occurred.
It is dillieult lo classify r. medium like Mina Miill(T as a
moral fraud from th<‘ psyeliiatrist's standpoint ; although
from th(‘ l(‘gal standpoint, with its practical emphasis on the
individuars personal responsibility for his actions, the
opposite* view is perfectly tenable.

Spirit FERse)NALiTiKS ’’

VVe now eaiter upe)n tlie interesting ejue^stion of spirit
personalities In e*omme)n with all types of slwimanism
the weirlel e)veT. the raimn-d'ttre of the spiritualistic mexliurn
is her elaim(‘d ability te) make contact with eiis(*arnate
spirits. In le ss se)phistieated feirms of shamanism the spirits
in e^ue*stie)n may be tutelary eleitie*s—vague anthre)pomorphie
beings whe) e'ontre)! the fe)rees e>f nature -or a host of ge)ejd
and e^vil spirit, wheise businc^ss it is te) aid e>r persecute tlie
human race. It is einly in the. most rewiit etevelopineait of
shamanism the me)deTn spiritualistic nuTlium- that the
fe)eus of atte ntion is exclusively directed te) the task of e*e)n-
taeting the spirits of dead persons.

TheTc are various ways in which the meeiium may e*e)ntaet
the‘ spirits of the de*ad. Most mediums claim to peissess
a personal '' guide or eontre)! ”, reaelily available te)
theju when they enter their trance. The\se^ guide's and eon-
tre^ls are generally the chief means of eommunicating with
of/?er inhabitants eif the spirit-world. It is these spirits
who are first ‘‘ contacted ” by the medium when she falls
into heT trance; nu'ssages freim either spirits are exehange'd
through them, or they bring e)ther spirits directly inte>
eeimmunieation wdth the medium. These guides and con¬
trols often bear some high-sounding or exotic name, or
claim to be the spirit of some long-deael legenelary or famous
person such as Hiawatha orClcHipatra. The spirits of ordin¬
ary deceased persons may also act as the medium’s personal

174

Tiir. l\svc'iioi*OGY ov tiik 0(X’Ui/r

control ”, ultliouirh minibers of such “ controls ” arc quilu
fictitious in that their claims to a former earthly existence
arc spurious.

The inliabitants of th<' spirit-world may send their messages
to the medium’s sitters in several ways. Th(‘ rnc^dium may
iiKTely report what her guide or <*ontrol “ says ” to her in
answer to the sitters’ (juestions. She may act as the niouth-
pi(‘e<' either of Ikt own control, or of other spirits if “ direct
communication ” has bc(*n established ” with a sitter’s
dead n^lativc or friend ; in this lather ease it is geiuTally
assunu'd that the spirit in (jU(‘stion has taken temporary
possession of the mediunrs body or at least of her vocal
apparatus. Of several variations on theses two thenu^s only
one need b<‘ mentioned here, and that is dire(*t v^oiec ”
communication. Direct voice ” mediums generally us(‘
some mechanical apj)aratus, usually a trumpet, through
which th(^y speak or whisptT whih' attempting tlutir im¬
personation of th<‘ deceased person. Such elementary
tricks of de<!eption re<|uirc* no (explanation other than that of
deliberate fraud.

Many of the spirit personalities (^vineed by the spiritua¬
listic medium are nadily cxplainablt^ in terms of hysteria
or psyehasthcmic delusion. It is th(‘s(‘ which constitute a
most interesting subject of study from the standpoint both
of psychology and of the law, for they show the frequent
diflieulty of ass(\ssing whethiT or not a medium can be* held
morally or legally responsible for her mode of life. The
fa(rt that a large class of mediums liave b(*conu‘ mediums
through a combination of psychological factors which arc
largely beyond their control is not sulficieritly recognised.
Nor, generally, is sufTicient difhTcntiatmn made between
those mediums who are deliberate money-seeking frauds and
those who believe strongly and sinccr(*ly in the spiritualistic
credo. The hysterical individual who converts her hysterical
syndromes into profitable and self-satisfying rnediumship
must not be judged too harshly. The pro(*ess is only too
often an inevitable one, oriec? the hysteric has heconw. in¬
troduced to the suggestible and often emotionally charged
atmosphere of the seance room.

With many hystciric^l mediums, the impersonations of
spirit guides and controls or dead persons bear a marked

“ SlMKIT PkRSONALITTKS ”

175

relatioTishif) to similar phcnoiru^iia se(‘ii in many hypjiotised
subjcrls, in automatu* writing and in the more extreme
eases in multiple or alternating jxTsonality.

Where dissociation is evidently at work, there is no need
always to assunu* the (‘xistene(‘ of liysteria, latent or overt.
Just as genuine automatic writing can he attained by most
individuals with llu‘ time and patience, there is no need to
doubt that an analogous form of automatic sp(‘aking and
this must be distinguished from hysterieiil V(trbal a\itoma-
tism can also be aecpiired by practise; dissociation,
Jiowc ver, in flic majority of such eases, is s(‘l(lom like ly to be
so great as to involve* the large d(‘gr(*e of amnesia claimed
by most mediums.

When marked hysterical tendencies an* part of the
medium's constitution, the spe(*(‘h and actions of the medium
while in trane'c may take on a form analogous to the
phenomenorj of itmltijde personality, i.e*. the medium may
exhibit a true* hysterical change of personality involving a
high degre e of dissociation with conse^quent amnesia. There
are numerous parallels to be‘ fe)und bed^ween such s(M*ondary
perse>naliti<‘s as th<‘ “ Sally of Morton Prince’s Hcauchainp
ease (see pp. 15S-16()) and the controls e)r guides of many
mediums. In such cases the* personalit}’ of the spirit guide
or control may be re*garele*el simply as an aspect of the* more
g(*iu‘ral })re)blem e)f hyste*rieal multiple personality.

In regarel to the Beauchamp ease, if “ Sally liad emerged
during the auto-hypnotisation o\‘ the spiritualist seance
inste*ael of Dr. Prince’s clinic, she would undoubtedly have
take*!! on the guise of a elisearnate spirit—probably as one of
those child spirit-guides so often encourttered in the literature
e)f spiritualism. The* e*ase of ‘‘ Sally ” further provides a
good instance e)f the way in which such secondary persona¬
lities play up to their audience, receiving ideas and sugges-
tie)ns fre)m their interlocutors, modifying them and handing
them back in confirmation of what the former have already
presupposed.

This playing up to the audience at a spiritualist seance
need not nee(*ssarily throw doubt upon the authenticity of
the secondary personality, although it is often misbikenly
construed by sceptics as evidence* of conscious deception

17f)

The PsYi’HOLocY of 'J'hk 0(xn’i/r

on behalf of th(‘ niediuni ; doubtless this is ^t'lUTally th(‘
ease, but it does not always follow. Dissociated secondary
personalities are (juite capable of achieving their own brand
of duplicity, and this is ofteii seen in the somnambulic
personalities of deep hypnosis. In the (‘ase of Sally ”
every efil'ort was ma(l(‘ to eonvinee Dr. Prim^c* of the antluMi-
tieity of her claims to be an im|)risoned soul struggling for
years to attain her liberty - an act of creative artistry which
played a large jiarl in influencing Dr. Prin(‘(*’s eon(‘lusions.
As was deserib(*d in tlie chapter on autonography, a s(‘i*ond-
ary personality (‘laiming to be the spirit of a dead Vicdoriaii
poetess, which manifested itself through Dr. S. Ci. SoaTs
automatic writing, made every att(‘m|)t to d(‘eeive Dr. Soal
himself into accepting her claims, and with a less infornu'd
autonograplua* might wch have* sue(*(M‘ded.

The hysterical tendencies of larg(‘ numbers of mediums
become increasingly evident, the more one studi(‘s the re[>orts
and resumes of their trance utterances. TJu* secondary
personalities (i.e. the “ guides ” and (*ontrols ”) (exhibited
by (piite intelligent mediums very frequently show infantile
characteristics, and in fact oft<‘n claim to 1)(‘ the spirits of
deeeas(*d children ; the child-control “ Feda of tlu* well-
known medium (iladys Leonard is an exccUeut (‘ase in
point.

The general low intelligence of mediuruistie se(‘ondary
personalities, in those eases whcTc the medium is not prac¬
tising deliberate fraud, finds numerous parallels in the secon¬
dary personalities of hysterical somnambulism, hypnosis
and those evinced ifi a great deal of automatic; writing. In
view of this very widespread characteristic of mediumistic;
uttcramres during trance, it is all the more surj)rising to find
that su(*h mediums still find a great many sittcTs who believe
completely in their trans(!endcntal powers. There is still
no limit, it seems, to the naive credulity of vast numbers of
adults in modern society.

The j)r(*disposition to infantile regression seen in a great
many mediums during trance is seldom, as is often thought,
the direct product of the trance state. Rather it is the
reverse. The predisposition is already present, and without
it most mediums would not be able to relapse into a men-

‘‘ SrMRi r Pkksonaijtiks '

177

tul striU* M Fi(T(‘ tile inui^iiiaiiori turns to naive imitations of
<liscfirnale spirits ; ihe medium would lind oUkt and
worthier means of ^ifivin^ expnvssion to suppr(*ss(Mi wishes
and lat(‘nt ni(*mories.

All ty]><‘s of secondary personality of liysiineal origin
show themselves capable of assuming any role which is
su^^(*sted to them or whi(rh suits the imeonseious needs or
conscious {)ur()Oses of the individual eoneeriKd. In former
tim(‘s secondary personalities tended t<) take on rdl(‘s su^-
j^ested to them by the traditions, beliefs and superstitions of
the a^(‘. Thus w<* have* se‘e*e)ndary jierseinalities who have*
(‘laimed to lie demons, the de vil, <»r the* meaithpie e'e* eif (real anel
his anjifels. Sue*h |K*rse)nalitie\s te*nel te) eadiere* round the*
frustrate‘el de‘sire's of the* individual, often in a subliniateal
feirm. As alreaely noteal somnambulic personalitie‘s in
Hiblieral times and in the* Midelle* A^es eiften toeik em the <(uise
of evil spirits, and te) be* '' pe)sse*sse*el by a ele*vil e)r e*ve*n te‘n
el(*vils was somedhinj^ te» be* take*n se‘rie)usly. sine*e it e)rten
sent the* peieir unfortunate* hyste*ric te) ele‘ath by steinin^ e)r
at the stake.

In einly relatively fe‘W e*ase‘s ele)e‘s the me*eliumistic trance
appear to involve* an une(|uive)cal ele‘^rre‘e* e)f hysterical
somnambulism. In its spemlane-ems fe)rm meineiideie som¬
nambulism <*ould not be e-apitalise el by any weiulel-be me*eiium
to any advantage. The same may be* saiel e)f true* pe)lyieleie
sonmamiiulisrn, but the*re‘ are state's e)f ce)nseieHisne'ss whie*h,
if ne)t truly se)miiambulie*, |)osse*ss many attribute's of genuine
somnambulism, anel some* nu*eliums have* [iroliably ae^juiivel
the faculty of inelue*ing states almost at will. This faculty
might appe*ar spontane'eiusly in cases whe*r(* the original
somnambulie* teiuU'ney l)ee*omcs susceptible* te> nK)eliiication
by suggestion eir autosuggestion.

Thi?re is a close relationship be*twe*en the hypne)tie state*
and the* state of mediumistic trance. Kxperiments have*
shown that it is possible to induce an involuntary rneelium-
istic traiHR* in a hysterical subject by post-hypneitie* sugges¬
tion, and that under the*se circumstances the subje*ct will
claim to be controlled by a spirit ” whose utteraiu*(*s will be
consonant with ideas previously suggested to him w’^hilc
under hypnosis.

ITS

Thk Psycu<)L(k;y of the Octtjlt

The histrionic abilities of hypnotised subjects and those
shown by many mediums also require mention. Most
mediums lie down and relax as a preliminary to thc'ir seanec,
and there is little rt'ason to doubt that in numbers of eases
a process of auto-hypnotisatioi» occurs, which, as in normal
hypnotic proeedun^s, may result in a spontaneous a})titude
for impersonation and dramatic ability. In such instances
the form of tlu' impersonation is brought about, not by
direct suggestion as in normal hypnosis, but by the medium’s
state of expectancy of communicating with the* deceased.

To make broail generalisations on the mediumstic* tran(*e
and its various manif(\stations is unwise. In only a relatively
few' cas(*s does tlu* trance emerg(* as a simpl(\ easily analyseci,
phenomenon. Almost invariai)ly a great number of factors
are inv-olved, subtly intermixed and ofteti varying from
seance to seance in their relationship to one* another. Th<*
various nianifestations of the niediumistic trance are, as
will be seen shortly, not to Ik* <*xplained in terms of the
psychology of tin* medium alom* but also involve tln^ n*-
actions ami attitudes of tin* siit<‘rs as wa ll. With the genuine
hysterical or })syehasth(*ni(* medium tlu* probl(‘m is evaii
furth(T complicated by the fact that tlu* secondary pe rsona-
lities which (‘merge an* tliemsehos (*aj)able of inllueneing the
course of trance d(‘vclopm(‘nt. Hetween tin* evolution of
the trarie(* state and the* emergent secondary personaliti(*s
there is often r(*ei])rocal intlucnee and mutiud interaction
which makes accurate analysis virtually impossible. Only
one such analysis has been attejupted that by Professor
Flournoy at the turn of the century, and it is to tins iriter(‘st-
ing case which wv now turn.

The C’ase of Hflknf. Smith IIvstkruai. Mkoifm

The case of IMem* Smith provides an ex(‘(*llent exam|)le
of how hysterical tendenci<*s can be (‘af)italis(‘d lyy an in¬
telligent woman through (‘onverting them into m(‘diumislie
channels. This remarkable medium w^as made* tin* subjec^t
of a thorough psychological studv' l)y twa) Swiss psycholo¬
gists ; first by Professor Flournoy and subsequently, until
the nu'dium’s death, by Professor D(*onna.

Thf Case of Helene Smith 171>

H<51ene's traiicres w(Te varied in th(* extreme. Soirietimes
they appeared little (lillereiit from thf)se of the majority
of mediums, while at other times they appeared more allied
to ma jor manifestatious of hysterical somnambulism. Like
St. Theresa or Joan of Are- ~probal)ly th(^ greatest “ medium ”
of all lime Helene talked to her spirits, heard them answer
in reply and often saw them or so it seem(*d to her.
Whether (u* not she aetually expcTieneed genuiru^ sensory
hallueinations or whether they wer(‘ th(‘ product of subjective
delusion is didieidt to say.

'Foday recurrent hystcTieal hallucdnatious are a rarity and
arc* (*onlined 1o the most extreme eases of hysteria or occur
at mome nts when the hysteric is subje cted to great emotional
stress. Strong suggestion, expectation and emotion can
all result in what wc* have*, for the sake of brevity, called
j)seudo-hallueinations; and as we have seen, pseudo-
hallu(*inations e^an be just as powerful in tliear elfeets upon
the* minds and belief’s of the^ individual eonecriK^d as the true
sensory hallucination. In the ease' of Helene Smith there
ele)e‘S se'ean cjuite* a good de'al of e^vielenc'e for actual sense-
iniage'ry being ])re‘S(‘nt at lime's, particularly in the latter
part of hcT history whe'U she hovered on the* borders of
insanity.

Hellene, during the {>eTiod of Flournoy's investigations,
was a. pk'asant-nature'd and intelligent young woman. She
worke^l in a big store and was eonseientioiis and efficient.
The* only evidence* of anything out of tlie ordinary in her
character was, signilicantly, her advanccel e*ryptomn('sie
faculty. For example, if aske'd for the ie)eation of a particular
article', or for a date ot* any particular event, she could
frequently recall the* desired information spontaneously and
without e*orise*ious elfort, but without reeolle'cting the cir¬
cumstances under which she originally acTjuire'd the know¬
ledge. This facidty of “ hidden memory " stood her in
good stc'ad in her we^rk and appeared soniewliat uncanny
to he r superiors.

The facts of Hellene's somnambulic inediumship are so
extraordinary as to vrarrant a k'Ugthy description. There
is only room, however, to indicate some of the salient points.

ISO

The Psycii()IX)(;y of the Ocrui/r

Tlu>s(^ inlen'stcil would be well advised to read the fascinating
Hceount ol‘ Flournoy’s synipaihetie study of the medium.*

The majority of genuine mediums confine themselves to
one or two types of trance manifestation. IMfcne Smith
poss('ssed four distinct typ(‘s ; tw'o of thes(% viz., automatic¬
writing and verbal automatism, were accomjianied by a
suprcssion of the normal (*onsciousncss and wctc* followed by
amnesia. The third t\ j>e of trance involved auditory hallu¬
cinations whose conUait she either WTotc down or repeated
aloud as from dictation. Dissociation in this last instances
left her sullicient fn'cdom of mind to allows her to obs(TV(‘
the words she heard in a rcncctivc and even critical manner.
Her consciousness of Ikt immediate environment was anoetic
at these times, though not altc)gether obliterated.

The fourth and most complex type of manifestation was
somnambulism with accompanying visual and auditory
hallu(*inations. Helene would often go through the most
vivid and emotional enactment of a seeru‘ whose reality
existed for hers(‘li‘ alone. The efTect on the witm^sses of
these highly dramatic exhibitions of her histrionic* powers
was one of enthralling fascination. Such i‘xtreme som¬
nambulism was, however, the exception rather than the
rule. For the most jiart she was able* to take a detached v iew
of her visions and voices uj) to a point, and renuanbered thcan
without difliculty. Consciousness of pri^sc rit reality during
these v isions was marginal and vague, though seldom com¬
pletely (»blitcrated (‘xc(*{)t in the extrcfue instancies of
histrionic somnambulism. When experiencing sucrh halluci¬
nations she* no longer heard or saw what was going on in
her immcMliatc environment. Flournoy graphically des¬
cribes the onset and disappearance of her v isions, ;

“ For a f(*w mornonls, for instance, the room, tiu* li^^ht of the? lamp,
clisai)p(‘ar from before her eyes ; the noise of the whe«‘ls in the strc*et
C'Ciases to })e heard ; she feels herself bceominp inert and passive,
while a feelin^r of tdiss and ecstatic well-being penneates tier entire

^ From India to the Planet Mars : a Study of a Case of Stnnruimfmlism
withGlossaluHa, I^oiuloii, 1900.

See; also fiirtJicr vol., Nouvelles Observations sur un Cas de Somtwmbtd-
isme avec Glossolalie; and Prof. W. Deonna’s De la Planete Mars
en Terre Sainte ; Art et Subconscienee ; Vn Medium peintre :
Helene Smith. Paris, 1932.

Tuv: Cask or Hkkknk Smtimi

ISl

individuality in Hit* pn*sen<M* nf thr spiTtaclt* wliicii apj>C‘urs to iier;
tlien lilt' vision, to Jut ^yrcat. rr^nd, slowly fadrs from her vi<*w. Dm*
lamp iuid Dm* furniture re-ap|)ear, the oiitsid<‘ noises a‘_taiii Jiiak(*
tlieinselves heard

The eeiitnil figure of her hallucinations was u Ix iu volt^nt
spirit who styled liiinscdf Leopold. Leo[)old was her ouide,
nuditor and protector, not oidy in Ikt I ranee* adventures in
iiiedievtil India or forty-three* million mil(‘S away e)n Mars,
but alse> in orelinary e ve ryeiav life*. As jm viously mentioned
Socrates hael a similar pre)te‘e*tinir spirit e)r dfumon wheise*
voice h(‘ he‘arel intea-nally anel whie*h, to him, as with the
hallucinate>rv angels of .leian of Are* anel IJe'lene* Smith's
Le*opolel, was eomple*te‘ly (‘e)nviiK*in^ evielenee of the* regality
of a weirlel e)f spiritual bein^^s. SoeTates’ drwrnon e/ertainly
e*iiahle*d him to fae*e‘ de*ath e*alrtdy in the* ee)nvie*tion that
witliin a f(*w minutes lie* woulel linel himse lf in aiM)the*r anel
me)re‘ ir»tere*stino* re*alm of e‘xiste*ne(‘. St. .Joan went to
te)rture* anel el(*ath rath<‘r than elisbeli(*v<* in the* reality e)f
lie*!* ^uarelian veiiee's. II('*lc'*ne* ne*ver wavered in he*!* I)e*lie*f
that Lcope)ld pe)sse*sse*era re*ality e)f his e»wn.

Le‘e>pe)lel is a !na<xnitice*id e‘xain[)le* of the* wa\ in wliieli
repre'ss<*d elesires and te‘nele*ne*ie‘s n)ay he j>e*rse)nitie*(l and
aot(Hl emt in elrama-tie* fe>rm. Tlie illusiein e)f Le'opold's
inelepe*ndi*ne*e ap|)e*ars e*e»mple‘te :

‘‘ Ifer s{><*aks for he*r (ITrlfiie*) in a way slu* would have* uo idt‘a of
doiii^, lie* <lie*tat(*s to Jirr porms of which she would he* incapahle*.
Ife* rcp!ie*s he*r oral or ni<*nlal ([iicsiious, corive’rse's wiDi he*r, and
diserusscs various (pie'stioiis. Like* a wise friend, a rational mentor,
anel as one* se*e*in«r tinners from a ]u*;lwi* filane*. he oiv(*s he*r advie^e*,
e*e)iinse‘l, orelers, e*ve*ii soiiu*iiiue*s dire*e*lly oppeisite* to lier vvislM*s and
against w]iie*li she re*l)e*ls. He* e*e>nsoh*s her, e*xhe)rls her, soe>lhes,
ene*e)niaf»es, anel n*j)rimands Jie‘r ; he* imde*rtake*s against Im*i tin* ele-
fe*ne*e* of persons sJie* dew's not like*, anel pleads the e*ause‘ of tiiose* who
are* aiitipiitlu*tie* to lie*!*. In a worel, it wemld he* impossilile* to imai»iiit*
a be*in^; more* inde*pe*iid<‘iit or iiiorr eliflere'iit from Mile*. Smith Ji(*rsedf,
having a more* pc*rsonal (*liarae*t.e:*r, an individuality more* marki'ei, or
a more* e*e'.rtain ac'tiial <*xistt*iM*e." ‘

There is no doubt tluit L(*ope)ld combineel iu his personality

* Monrneiy, 'J\, eip. e*it., pp. .'i2-5a.

” Flournoy, T., e)p. c*it., pp. 78-79.

182

Tiik Psychology of the Occui/r

a few facets of character and intelligence w^hich we re often of
a higher grade than the medium herself normally possesst^d.
Paradoxically, the general impression he gives is one of
emotional immaturity, a combination often found in jx'ople
called geniuses through their faculty of brilliant work
achieved without a corresponding efl'ort.

In the ease of tlu^ spontaneous genius the formation,
association and incubation of ideas is dom^ at the unconscious
level and the finished product emerges rnon* or less complete
into consciousness. Most writers and composers are familiar
in sonu' degree with this jdienomenon the jhmi just doi\s not
run fast enough to transcribe th(‘ flow of ideas on to pajXT.
In Helene Smith's (‘asc the unconscious incubation of ideas
operated on a forrnidabk* s(‘ale. It reached the limit in the
composition and n b'ntion of an entirely new language*, used
with permanent cfuisistency, and ostensibly taught her by
th(‘ omniscient Leo})old. The* term omniscient is appro¬
priate, for tlu* language he taught his |)rotege was that of
the inhabitants of Mars !

Helene’s adventures and her <leseription of Mars make
extremely ititeresting reading, Hy automat ie writing, vt rbal
automatism, dictation from hallucinatory voie(\s and des¬
criptions of her visual hallucinations, a composite* pi(‘1ur<* of
the fauna, flora, topography, inhabitants and customs of
Mars was built up. Her subconscious er(*at ion of the Martian
scene W'as naiVc and not beyond the j)owers (»f an imaginativt*
seht)ol child. Tin* construction of the Martian language
also show(*(l the same level of int(*llig(*nei*, being eonipos(*d
mainly of distorted Eurojaaii root-words, mostly French,
with the most cl<*mentary grammar. Hut in view (»f the
fact that Helene spoke it with consistency and considerable
fluency, Flournoy e*onsiel(Te‘d it a prodigious f(*at of siib-
ce)nse*ie>us memory. In his book Flournoy giv(*s numerous
cxample*s of this fe)rin tif ^lonfiolalia with fUH‘onipariying
translations. Tin* volume* also cemtains (ln»wings by llcleiie
of the Martian scene copie*el during ln‘r hallucinatory (experi¬
ences.

Hysterie*al mediums who arc subje*ct to abnormal states of
disseiciation arc inxaribly convince*d of the supeTfiatural
origin of their tranct* utteraneH\s. When the phcnoHn*noii
of crytoinnesia cnte*rs into the picture, such belie^fs arc easily

Sampi.i:s t)F AN IJi.tha-Mautian ” VVrittkn Languagk Composed
DURING Trance by the Remarkable Medium Helene Smith

(Reproduced front '"'‘Archives de Psychologic^^" Geneva,

1S4

Tin: PsYCiioi-or.Y ok tiii: ()c‘(*ri/r

linderstood. Hysteria is largely the produet of repression,
and when in a state of tranee sueh niediuins may well be
able to recall long-forgotten incidents and memori(*s which
have been repressed beyoml (‘onseions rc^eall during their
normal waking state. Since in her normal stat(‘ tlu* medium
possesses no knowUdgc' of sueh incidents or m(‘mori(‘s. sh(‘
readily belit ^ (s tliat they came to her ' through the
supernatural agency of disearnate spirits.

Ttu d(‘gree to which ervptoinnesia may attain is some¬
times (extraordinary. ll(;‘l(*iu* Smith appart idly possessed it
to a ri markable degr(‘(‘, and Flournoy usefully e(»mpares her
gU^ssolalia witli the easi^ of a nearly illiterate young woman
who, while in a state of delirium indmvd by fever, gave
utt(*rane(‘ to long sciitenees in aneitad (ire(‘k and Ht‘brew.
It was found tliat slie kn(‘w not a word of either (H*(‘(*k or
Hebrew wJud she had r(Tov(*r(‘d from h(‘r d(‘lirium. Th(‘
myste ry was resolved when it was l(‘arned that sh(‘ had one(e
been in the service of a (German savant from wlv)m she
must have uneonseiously assimilated a certain amount of
the two languages from overhearing him whilst he was
engaged in his studie s. (>v|)tomne‘sia is freepiently ivspon-
sihle for apparent eases of te*lepathv or (*lair\ t)yan(‘e‘
in everyday life.

Flournoy was able*. l)y eare‘ful analysis, to sheuv that
L(H)j)old had his ge*nesis in the medium's past. He dated
from a forgotteai incident in lier e^iildliood. She had be*e‘n
in danger of being severely mauled by a savage dog and had
bevn saved by a man of striking aj)[)earanee. Tliis man's
memor\ had been in\ e steel with all the* ideal e|ualilies by
He'‘l(‘n(‘ ; it had bevome tJie focus of all hea* romantic longings
whieli had sun’ered repressieMi througli llie e*xigene*ies of
having to e^arn a humelrum living in a modeTii city. The
subconscious nie niory of this man be'came the ce ntral pived.
of h(‘r repre'ssed daydreams and Fantasie‘s. Ihd as Flournoy
has su(*(*inetly and intruetively ])ut it :

*' W'itlioiil the* spiritimlism and tJa* aiitn-Jiypiiotization of the
sf'jiiirt's, lAropold eroiilei neverr Jiavo be'eai truly deve*lof)e(J into a person¬
ality, tuit would have eontimuHl to remain in the ii(*t)ulous, ineeiherent
state of vague suhliinitial rev<*rk‘s and of o(‘easional automatie phenev
niema.'’ *

^ noejrne)y, T., e»p. <*it., pp.

Thk (\\vSk or IIki.kxi: Smith

185

111 192!) Professor T. K. OestiTreich reporterl another
reniarkal)l(‘ eas(‘ of liysterieal j[flossoIalia. * TJiis ease jm^sc^nts
many parallels with that of IltMene Smith, (‘xe(*]>t thai in the
eas(‘ of the '' Ma(l(‘h(‘n ans der Fr{‘ni(l(' the dissociation
was more eompl(‘f(‘ and anionnted to a semi-permanent
fupn(‘. This ^iiTs secondary personality took on lh(‘ charac¬
ter of an ori(‘ntal mystic. She spoke a psendo-ton^ue,
which w^as Iut own invention cremated subeonseionsiy by a
teehni(jii(‘ similar to Flournoy’s medium. She ima^rined
herself a priestess oi a mystiTious Ihiddhist cult. This was
evcailually sliown to have been deriv(‘d from the vivid im¬
pression made on Ikt by a statue of liuddha duriiifi; the (Tirly
days ot her hvsterieal mental condition and its fusion with
her naturally strong, thouf^h unortliodox, devotion towards
Homan Fatholieism. There is not th(' least doubt that liad
th(* Miidchni been subjieted to the inllu(ai(*(‘s of th(‘ seance
room her se(*()ndary |)ers<»nalit\* would have* taken on the
trappings of spiritualism instead of thos(‘ of an imaginative
form of Huddliism.

Alt(T M(‘lene Smiths death in IIKIO. Prof(‘ssor Deonna
publish(*d a l)ook' on the medium's latter y(‘ars. It shows
a picture of Ih'lene, hurt and outrag(‘d by Flournoy's book
explaining her spiritualistic visions and (*oinmunieations in
orthodox psyeJiologieal terms as products of her own sub¬
conscious mind, ndusing furtfu’r s<*itaitifie in\estimation, and
turning wholi'Jieartcflly to the de\(‘lo|)nienl of iica* jiowers
as a spirit ualsitie nu‘dium. Deonna describes how in
Helene’s last years her s(‘(‘ondarv personality took on the
guis(‘ ()t the reinearnation of' Mary, th(‘ sister of Martha,
and paint(‘d scenes from tlu* New Testanuad at tlu‘ guidance
of heavenly spirits which surrounded her : Mary's style
was curious. She painletl here aiul there over the canvas
with(»ut a[)parent cohesion until, (piitc surprisingly, the last
l(‘w strok(‘s rendered the |)ieture virtually eonifih'te. DcHUina
was not so sympathetic as Flournoy, or j)erha|)s the medium’s
nuaital eoiulition had declined witli the years. For although
h(‘ drew I'omparison betweiai Helene and otJic'r inspired

* Das MatU'hvn aas dvr Frvmde. Din Faff re/# »S7o/v///g dvr Pvrsnnlirhkvit,
stuitmiiri nrja.

0|>. cii.

186

Thk Psychology of thk Occult

artists aiui niystios of th<‘ past, he emphasised a niiniber of
factors in her mental life indicative of insanity.

One is glad to note that Heleiu^ was saved from the
possibility of ending her life in a mental home by th(‘ devotion
of one of her sitters, a rich American woman, who left her
an annuity for lif(‘.

Des]>ite the claims of tlu* spiritualists and many adherents
of psychical res(‘ar(‘h, it can t)e amply d(‘monstrated that the
purported spirit personalities exhibited in the mediumistic
trance display the satm* peculiarities as the s(‘condary
personalities witiiessed in hypnosis, automatic wTitirig or in
certain hysteri(»al phenomena. In a sent( nee, the spirits ”,
“controls’' and ‘‘guides’' of th(‘ spiritualistic pantheon
are nothing mon' than products of the medium’s own mental
proe(*sses. I’lu y arc personitications ov mirrored projections
of tlu‘ nu'dium’s own repressed impulses a!\d wishes, moulded
and conditioned by the ideas of spiritualism and the intluenees
of the seance room. Then* is no n(‘(‘d for the psychical
reseanher, howe ver siiu^ere he may lu‘, to res\iseitate the
aneicTit tln^ory of external possession lo account for the
phenomenon of the UK'diumistie tran(‘(‘. Such Iheories
should remain what th(‘y an' either psychological problems
or ai\thropological curiosities.

'rni: Mkdiimjshc Thancl and riii. Qukstion of

Am\f.sia

Alnu)st invariably, mediums claim that their trances are
follo'w(‘d by virtually total amnesia tliat they are subse¬
quently unable* to rc'call any of tlieir utterances or actions
which occurred during their trance. Fn the* case* of practising
m(‘diums who consciously and deliberat<‘ly simulatx* the
trance stat(‘s and that is almost certainly the majority
—such (claims may naturally be disregarded.

In regard to the <dher <*lass of medium, any broad general¬
isation is out of th(‘ (pu‘stion, but it may b(* stated at once
that total amnesia is unlikely to occur exe(*pt where a high
degree of gt imine dissociation is exhibited, and which in the
great majority of ciases may be classified as a hysterical
syndrome. Autosuggestion and auto-hypnotic practices

Tin: !MKi)irMiSTK- 1 'kanck

1S7

may result in a hif^^h degree of ainn(‘sia, l)ut th(‘ eonij)leteness
of the amnesia must remain open to doubt exee])t wlieii
hysteria is pn^sent. If genuine verbal autfunatisni enters
into the mediuinistie utterances, we may provisionally
assume, following the parallel of aiitoinalie Avriting, that
subsequent amnesia docs ocxmr. Triic^ vcTbal automatism,
however, is almost invariably a symptom of hysteria, and
the* parallc*! with acquired aulonography cannot be* foll<)wc‘d
too closely.

The (piestion of amnesia is inimitably bound up with the
question of whether the medium retains some <lc‘gree of
awareness of her (‘iivironmcait at tlie time* of lier Irane'c*. If
dissociation is eomplede^, tfien the medium s normal awareness
of her environment may be* nil. If diss<)(*iation is only
partial thi n she will re tain a peripheral or anoeiie awareness
of her immesliale enviromne nt and will l>e able to remembiT
— if she desires a good deal of what o<*eurre‘d during luT
trance.

The* re*ase)nable* view to be* taken e*oneeruing the* great
juajority ol' genuine* trane*e* mediums is that llie*y do re*tain
seune de*gre‘e* e)f awari'iiess e)f tludr imme'diate* e‘nvironment
and have* tlie* |)eiwe*r to re*e*olle‘e*t a ge)oel de*al of their ut teran(‘e\s
afterwards. It nvvesl be borne in mind, howi'ver. that lhc*re
isevcTV possible* gradatiem l)etwc en the* full powe r of e*onseious
re*eolleetion pertaining to the pure ly sinmiateel tranea* and
the total amnesia of extreme* hyste'rieal dissocialie>n. The
degree of amne*sia, in fae*t, varie s ae*e*ording le> tlie* psychologi¬
cal eonstitution of the nuelium and the lyj)e e>f tram e* iiiani-
ft*sted. Tliis fact does not. however, prexint ne*arly all
mediums from claiming total amnesia. Most me*eliums wlio
make* this claim are* probably aware that thi*^ is not true.
Others may de*lude* the*mselve\s that it is true*. In most
east's, particularly with non-hyslerie*aI mt*diums. the* medium
remains largc'ly eonseious of what she is saying, thiugh she
may not ve>luntarily e*ontrol the content or extent of h(‘r
utterance's once tlie trance state* has been enge!uUTe‘d.

Witli a e*e)nsieleTable mimlxT of nu'diums a kind of psendo-
amm*sia oe*e*iirs. The* enit eif nu'eliumship has its own tradi-
tiems, anel erne* of the'se is that ainne'sia Idllows the traiu'e
perioel. Tne young woman wiio finels Jie rself elrifting into
iiu'eliumistie* praetie*e*s has, from he*r previeiiis e‘\pcriene*e‘s e)f

188

Thk PsYCii(^)Lor.v of tiii: OcciM/r

spirit uiilisnu assiniilati'il the traditions and ]>reeoneepiions
of tht‘ cult, and luiturally takes (he phciionicnon for granted.
The expectation of amnesia may not bring about a state of
amnesia through a process of autosugg(‘stion. t>ut it may
very t asily lead to delusions of amnesia, i.(‘. a personal eon-
vi<*tion that amnesia occurs. This delusion can l)ccom<‘
part and parcel ot th(‘ autistic thinking the vicarious
gratification for deprivations and frustrations by wisliful
fantasies in which the medium b(‘comcs iiu^n'asingly
mergefl.

As wt‘ ha\ (' already seen in the case of the Cicrman medium
Mina Miillcr inv<^stigat('d by Dr. Fiinfgeld. nudiunis are
typically unable to take a reasonabh^ attitude* towards their
own naiital proc(*sses, and there is nothing uncxp(*eted in
the fact that many m(‘diums who show no evidcn(‘c of amnesia
arc able* to delude* thcmse*lve‘s that total amne^sia e)ecurs ;
nor is there re*ason to d(»ubt that the* elelusion may be* g(*miine
and ne)t simiilale'el.

Tuk IIisTHtoNtc Ahimty ()F Mkdiums

Cone*eTmng liie unusual acting ability elisplayed by the*
ee*le*brated nuelium Helene* Smith, Profe*sse>r Kloiirne»y wrote :

** As regards tlu* raeniKy of* assimilating scanty sources: of informa¬
tion, eomhining them, and reprodiieing tJi(*ni in a living dramatics
forTii in lJi<* pantomime and the miniiery of* somnamheilism, there is
nothing surprising to tJiose who are* ae‘(|iiaint(*d through examples
drawn from hypnotic and aiitoniatist pficnoim'iia witli the fanenfiil
creative nhilities of the sub-eofis(*ioiis mind/' '

Flouriu)} was writing abe)ut a mt*dium whe) was (*xe*cptie)nal
in almost e very respe*e*t e*omparcd te) the gcne*ral run e)f
me*diums. While it is true that some ine*eliums have, in the
jiast. exee*e‘eleei the normal ability of untraim*d p(*rs()ns in
acting, e)eeasionally rising to eeinsielerable* heights e)f inventive
dramatic presentation, the eflbrts of meist have* be*en limit(*d
to those* attainable* by any ordinary pe‘rs()n fre*e*d from the*
re‘straiiits and inhibitions pe^rlaining te) normal existence.

* SmtvHles Obsenmtiims sur un (^as dr Somnambnlisme avre Gfossa!alii\
Paris, 1901, |». *J07 ; author’s trail dation.

The Histkioxk’ Ahility of Mediums

1S9

Most mediumistic disj)lays, in fact, are banal in the extreme,
and only fervent believcTs and simple-minded people could
regard them as revelations from beyond the grave.

Flournoy's medium was a hysterical subject with a strong
tendency to dissociation. She was, furthermore, normally
a gifted and int(‘llig( nt individual, before her personality
became eomj)letely involved in her spiritualistic delusions
to the point of ineipieiit psychosis. In general, mediums
who display an acting ability above avtvrage do so by virtue
of long practice or b(‘<*ause they possess a natural faiulity.
The knowledge that they hav<‘ the keen intcn^st and sympathy
of their easily gulled audiences or sitters lends them confi¬
dence. In th(‘ atmospher(‘ of the seance room, they can
“ let themselves go " in a way which would l)c impossible
for th(‘m before a crowd of sceptics.

These observations, how#»\ er, applv mainly to simulated
trances and thos(‘ w'hich are largelv' the product of self-
delusion, With th(* hysterical class of medium, as with the
hyst<‘rieal type of automatic writcT, altliough these observa¬
tions undout)tedly {)lay a considerable part, there is another
and mor(‘ important factor to (*onsider. The dramatic
ability evinced by certain types of h\ steric is a well known
phenomenon, and it is among Ihe hysterical type of medium
that w<' find outstanding examples of histrionic ability ; it is
with these that we may how principally (‘onccni ourselves.

The hysterical medium whose traiu'cs are so often the
pragmatic expression of a hysterical disability -is ordinarily
highly suggestible by nature. The role played by suggestion
in the abnormal atmosphere of the seance room is a large
one and may easily lead to psyehologitvd states of mind
analogous to hypnosis. With the hysterical inediiun this
tendency to hypnotic ()r semi-hypnotic mental states is
facilitated by the traditional methods of entering the trance
—the relaxed posture, the closing of the eyes and the ex¬
pectant attitude of surrendering the mind to external in¬
fluences. The autohypnotisation of the seanei* room is a
process in which the sitters largely take the plar^e of the
hypnotic operator in the psychotherapeutic clinic. The
fitters' conviction and expectation that the medium is about
to enter a trance and make contact with the deceased exerts
a powerful suggestive influence on the mind of the medium.

MH) The Psychology of the Oc’cirr.r

The result is often to produce a j^enuiut* state of mental
dissociation in the case of nu'diunis proiu* to this tendency,
or else to produce a iiK'utal state, very similar to hypnosis,
in which the medium's mind is largely at the 7nercy of ideas and
beliefs held by the sitters.

One of the main features of dc‘(‘p hypnosis is that the
hypnotised subject can be made to assuiiu* any role which
the operator suggests. This Ls particularly easy in the ease
of hysterical subjects. Furthermore, whatever role is sug¬
gested. whether it be a famous historical personagt* or simply
a small child, the subject appears temporarily to i<lentify
hims('lf with the suggested pc^rsonality.

In the seance room the medium often aj)pears to identify
herself with her spirit-guide or control, or with the purported
spirit of a dead persfui. The spontaneous aptitude for
dramatic impersonation in many hypnotised sul:)je(*ts finds
a good parallel in the* considerable skill which a number of
mediums with known hyst(Tieal tendencies an* able to
impersonate dead persons during a trance. Dissociative
states— as for example in extreme* polydeie somnambulism -
are fniquently r(*sponsibl(‘ fora h(‘ighten(*d dramatic faculty,
and in much of the aulohypnotisation of the seance room
the speech and actions of the medium may n^asonably be
considered the concomitants of genuim mental dissociation.

The parallel between the behaviour of hypnotic subjects
and certain types of mediumistie trance has been noted by
the psychologist, T. W. Mitchell:

“One of the most remarkable features of deep hypnosis is the un¬
expected aptitude for dramatic impersonation shown by the liy|>no-
tised person. The literature of hypnotism is strewn with descriptions
of the astonishing rtpreseiitations of well-known people given by
hypnotized subjects in response to suggestion from without, and are
rendered possible by some release of power, or freedom from inhibi¬
tion, peculiar to the hypnotic state, so the character of a (spirit)
control may be merely a result of self-suggestion by the medium
taking effect in a self-inducf*d hypnosis. If it is suggested to a
hypnotized person that he is Napoleon Buonaparte he will accept
the suggestion and will act the part; for the tiuie being he appears
to identify himself with Napoleon, So, if a medium goes into trance
holding the conviction that he is controlled by the prophet Isaiah

Thk Histrionic Abimty ok Mkdu ms

191

thc‘ tranct* ]»ersonality will assume the title and play llie l art as well
as he eaii. Some process of this kind w^oiiJd fonii the simplest ex-
planal ion of llu* (•haracter of many of the ordinary controls of medium-
istic trance, and \t seems in me the most probable explanation of the
imitation of the irliosyiuTasies of dead fri(‘nds seen in cases of ‘direct
control.’

Mitchell also conchuh'd that coiisist(*nl sf)irit-j)crs(»!uilities
wVncli in 1ranc(‘ over a pi riod oi‘ \(‘ars wen^ Ire-

(juently analogous to those wdiieh (anerj^ed in eas(‘s of multiple'
personality. “ Sally " in the Heauehamp ease illiistral(‘s
tin* similarity very we ll.

It is ii()tal)le tliaf th(‘ jHTinanvnt spirit-personaliti(*s,
such as those exem])!i(ied hy th(‘ spc'cdal spirit jruides and
controls which most nu'diums attach to their p(‘Vsons, seldom
exhibi! any n'lnarkable dramatic power, nsually. as was
the ease w ith Sally ihes('^ruides and controls are infantile
and pret(^niions. They may arise* either sj>()ntaneously and
in response to some inner eonflied or ne ed ; or as a product
e»f suffpestion preet'diiip or durinp the initial tranet* states.
In other words, the* more* permanent spirit-personalities of
tlie hysterical or auto-hypnotie* trance^ tend to exhibit those
regressive eharaeteristi(*s often found in eases of multiple
personality and hypiioti(‘ somnambulism.

The nu'diumistie trance generally tends tc» become in¬
creasingly a matter of habit as the years pass by. Orlainly,
as the medium (‘omes to find lilV* more eongtaiial owing to
the siKJcess of lier calling, and wdth all the scope for expression
that mediurnship implies, the original hysterical tendeiudes
will tend to disappear and any n*al dissoeiativi* trance state
will becoiiK* iiiereasingly difficult to induce. With a few
(exceptions, th<Tefore, it is hard to believe that the middle-
aged profc'ssional medium of long experience' is not fully
conscious of n'sorting to deci'ption wdicn she' ’'goes into a
trance What may originally hav(‘ started as genuime

dis.sociative traiKM'-state only too often be(*omes an ('asily
siinulat(*d hiibit wdii(.»h providi^s an easy and intc'resting
source of income.

It may hapjicn, of course', that tlu* practice* e)f mediurnship
may iiuTcase the hysteTieal t(*nd(‘neies te) a peiint where the

* MitrlicII, T. W., ill Psydtnhfiy and the Scienecs^ pp. 172-17a.

Tin: FsvrH()i,(H;Y nr tiik (Kcri/r

192

)iK*(Iiuni becomes subjirt to pernuinent delusions such us
oeeiirred with Helene Smith. Aeeordin^^ to Viollet, this
used to be of (jiiite frequent oceurrcuiee ut one lime;
nowudnys, however, it seems to be rare.

The Medtitm and Twolontahy Cues

The probbaii of involuntary s(*nsorv em^s in n'iation to
occult practices and <‘xp<Timents will b(‘ diseiissed at length
later.* It is tluTc^fon* imueeessary to enttT into the subj(»et
at any haigih in th(‘ present chapt<T. Xo emphasis is ne(‘d(*d
to show tli(‘ relevane(‘ of sensory cues to the way in which
mediums, fortune-tellers, clairvoyants and otlu r occult prac¬
titioners may gain the necessary intbrmation t(» surprise,
bewilder and d( light their clients.

Mediums may gain informative (*ues from their sill<Ts by
a v^ariety of means : by the sitters’ own involuntary reactions
to the questions and ('xplanatory sounds, syllabh^s. intona¬
tions and g<‘stures of the medium ; by elu(‘s provided by the
sitters’ remarks, allirmations and diiiials ; by uneons(‘ious
articulation, and tlie involuntary innervations of tin* throat
muscles on the part of the sitters. The clever medium has
far more chance of picking uj) apfiosite cues from lier silt(*rs
than tin* laboratory exp(*rimcnter in telepathy and clairvo¬
yance. Most m(*(liums dcUhcraicly ( inploy I In* method oi‘
obtaining unwitting responses or involuntary reactions from
their sitt(a’s in order to gain the vital clues tln*y r(*(juire.
Dr. Fijnfgeld’s mediifm, Mina Miiller, possesseci a lively
capacity for putting two and two tog<‘ther in this why,
Kiinfgeld tx rmed the jirocess Komhinationsfahigkrit. It was
instructing to find that vvh(*n su(*h involuntary indications
wer<‘ (*oui\tcrfeitcd, Mina Miiller still fo!lowA*d them even
aft(T she had learned that her seen*!, had b(‘(‘n discovered.
This highly successful professional clairvoyant possess(*d
little or no critical faculty and was in many waiys remarkably
unintelligent. Her <*ritical faculty, however, was (‘vidcntly
superior to that of many of her sitters !

•Spiritualism and Insanity, 1010.
• Chapters 24 and 2,1.

Platk IV^. a MKDiTATiNr. Sad HU

His posture indicates that he inay originally have been trained in Yogie disciplines.
{See Chapter 16 }

Platf \ A Fakir L^ing on \ Bto of Thorns
{See Chapter 16 )

Thk Mokai. AsPKC’T of Mfdii^mship

llKi

S()UU‘ hyst<‘ri(*Hl incdiunis niuy well j)oss(*ss nii unusually
dcv<*loj)p(l s(‘nsc of si^ht arid hearing. Hysterical hyper-
aesthesia lias often hecui reported in tin* literatures, although
this hyperaesthesia ” is dm* to nothing rnon* than an
increase in ttie normal pow(*rs of ohs(*rvation attriliiitatile
to normal jisyeliologieal (‘aus<‘s. If a hyst(srieal m<*dium
<loes )ia|>pen to possess such abnormally acute powers of
observation it greatly facilitates her task of jiieking u}) the
small involuntary auditory and visual cues (dfered by her
sitters. Whether this is ind(*ed thi* ease eaiinol b(* judged
without prolong(‘d investigation, but the jiossibility remains
and miglit easily account for tin* suee(‘sses of certain mediums.

With th(‘ deliberat(‘ly fraudulent medium any nu'ans of
obtaining information is (‘m[)loy(‘d. lI(*rown p(‘rsonal know¬
ledge of th(* sitt(Ts is oft(*n far beyond that which the sitters
bcli<‘ve and may be obtained in casual conversation with
them or AvitJi th(*ir friends and acrpiaintancf^s ; this may be
quite (*asy since sjiiritualistic* believers an* often well-know'ii
to each other through their mutual interests. Private detec¬
tives have b(*en used on more than one o(*easion. The
gullibility of the sitters increases every tinu^ the medium
demonstrates “ siijuTiiatural ” knowl(‘dge (*on(*erning them¬
selves or their dead frieJids and n^latives.

The Moral Aspect of Mfdiumsmip

While it is eertaiidy arguable that all im diumistie practice's
are morally reprehensible and harmful to tin* Inst interests
of the community -a view taken l)y tlu* law it is doubtful
whether the majority of mediums themselves can b(* regarded
as morally fraudulent. That a great many mediums are
eonseiously out to feather tlu'ir nests by deliberal( ly lioaxing
the public is an uiKhmiable fact. Hut for many practising
mediums a number of mitigating eireumstanees must b(‘
taken into account. For most practising mediums undoubt¬
edly believe in the spiritualistic credo, at least to some (‘xtent.
There are many who believe in it completely, and though
these latter may resort to fraudulent practices, such is their
lack of introspective (Titieal faculty that they are ('asily able
to reconcile the paradox in their own minds.

194

The Psychology of the Occult

The individual prone to lying <Tnd invention who actually
believes what he is saying is by no means a rarity ; most
mediums exhibit this trait in varying degree. In its more
extreme mafiifestation this eontinued lying may become
pathological and is known as mythornonia. A g<‘n('ral charac¬
teristic of mytlioniania is that th(‘ indivulual concerned
actually believ^es the improbable tales he relat(*s. and th<‘r(‘-
fore cannot be held morally responsible.

Many mediums live in a world wher<‘ there is no marked
frotitier betw(*<Mi imagination and reality. This trait is
often found in people of unstable temperaments ; an excellent
example being the French novelist Balzac. Being frecpK'ntly
unable to distinguish Ix tween the credible and the incredible^
he could {)ut all his heart into writing faiitastic lies to his
wealthy and titled lovers ; when writing or t(‘lling these lies,
he felt the sam<‘ intense emotions as if he hail been telling
iht‘ truth. From the social vi(‘wpoint he was a liar. From
tlu‘ psychological point of view he (‘ornbined instability
with over-iu\agiuatvvencss. Yet he (Huild still ])roduce
major works of the order of the ComSdie Uumahu\ Many
mediums exhibit the same charaeteristies. Socially and
even legally, they may be open to condemnation as practising
frauds. Fundaincntally, they may deceive themselves as
well as their public.

The charge of moral fraud is even l<*ss warrantabh^ when
the mediums and there are very many of them have come
to believe completely in their own supernatural facullies.
Particularly is this true of mediums with hysterical tendencies
whose trances <‘.xhibit genuine dissociation ; it is even tru<‘ of
many mediums whose revelations of an unseen world are
quite obviously invented on the spur of the moment they
may go away from the stance completely convin(*ed that
what they have bt*<u recounting was insj)irt*d by their
clairvoyant powers.

Many a medium who started off as a deliberate fraud has
become so enamoured of her role, and so steeped in it, that
she has ended up by believing herself possessed of super-
nutural faculties. Even hysterical trance-mediums must
have the common sense to maintain their infallibility as
sceresses, and this can only be done by mixing a (certain
amount of chicanery along with the genuine dissociative

Thk Morai. Aspect of Mkdittmship

195

tniru*(*s. If anyone should think tliat this must (*onstitut<^
a blow to tlie nu^dium’s personal self-esteem, he would be
entirely mistak(‘n. Most of us have known a relative or
aequaintanee who habitually eommits the j^rossest errors
of tast<* or judgini'nt, and eiuleavours to eover these up
with outrageous falsehoods or < x(*uses ”, whil<‘ yet retaining
a strong eonvietion of his (or her) own Intelleetual and moral
superiority. To })oint this out to them would be folly, for
it would be met with frank disbelief!

Betw(‘(‘n the true trance states of tiu* advanced hysterical
medium and the medium who is eons(*iously acting, there
li<‘s a large borderland which cannot t)e conveniently elassi-
li(‘d. In such interuK'diate types of trance " lh(‘ mediuin
may beconu* so entangled, (‘inotionally and intellectually,
in the impersonation she is playing, that she temporarily
identifi(‘s herself with tIu* role. If sec]>ties are present in
th(‘ audi(‘nee, h<T reaction is to defend herself and her re¬
putation with all means at her command, and she is perfectly
willing to resort to any amount of delibe rate fraud to prevent
exposure. It may be at moments lik(‘ these that sh(‘ realises
the truth about herself, and her delusions are stripped ))are.
Wh<*n her eontidenee returns again, and she is once more
subject only \(> the prais(‘ and gratitude of the faithful, her
delusions return in full force, and any amount of subsequent
argument and questioning will fail to shake her convictions.
Her belief in her spirit guide will be absolute.

The trance and pseudo-trance utterances of the medium
reflect not only the latent emotional t(‘ndencies of the medium
herself, but also th(‘ doctrines and ideas of her sitters, to
which she instinctively responds and in which her mind has
long been steeped. It is easy to understand how the medium,
once plung(‘d into the ebb and flow of spiritualistic ideas and
beliefs, becomes enamoured of the idea of an omniscient
spirit-guide who is esp(*cially attached to her person, and
deludes herself into believing in its reality.

The fraudulent medium is not altogether morally repre-
hensibh'; for her fraudulent practices arc carried out against
a background of delusion, wishful thinking and sincere
belief in both her supernatural powers of cognition and in
the reality of the spirit whose mouthpice(‘ she is. Ilers is
a state of mind the more (‘asily brought about because she

11H» The PsYC'noLOCiY ov the 0(T\’i/r

(Iocs not iV(‘l any nc(‘(l of s(‘lf-rriticisni; and iliis is due to
the inciital and moral (Mivironmcnt supplied by those who
l)eliev(‘ ill her, and, more important still, to the traditions
of her calling. In primitive shamanism and in its ofTslioot,
niod(Tn spiritualism, both tla* shaman and the medium play
a rule in keejiing with anei(‘nt traditions, witli wliieli th(*y
eompl(‘tely identify th(‘mselves. This class of medium is
V(‘ry large, although th(Te are probably greater numbers who
can be (dassified as thorough-going rogut^s. eheerfully hoaxing
their sitters for linaneial gain and regarding their clients as
(Tedulous fools.

No medium could eonvinee luT sittiTs of the authenticity
of her trailers without some eakailated th(‘atri(?al display.
Tliis is all |)art and jiaree l of th(‘ game, and the medium who
wishes to capitalise' her spontaiu'enis or induerd hysterical
trance's, which she l)elie.‘ve*s to be mandVstations of occult
faculties, knows the aelvantage*s of a well-se't stage. A full-
staged trane'i' with all the traditie>nal trappings is a prime
necessity io })rofessional mediums, and the' appurteaianees
of trailer may lie eJe'liberate ly exaggeratc'd until the y become?
a fixed habit without which no form ed trance becomes
possible. Idiis aspect of spiritualism may strike the* unknow-
ledgeable observer as proof that all me'diums are* conscious
frauds. Ye t such a de'eluction is false, since a fair perv eutage
of mediums believe utte'rly in the spiritualistie* firmament
and in their j)owx*r to contact it, while the ir trailers may be
genuine instances of mental disseriation or autei-hypneitisa-
tion ; and their calling they often heild to be* neit only honour¬
able but a “ light unto the* world

Yet even these me'diums fulfil the ancient traelitions eif
shamanism by dramatisation and stage e'flects. The non-
appciarance of an expe'ctcd trance must at times be (*overed
up or their reputations would suffer. If th(.?y simulate the
trance at these times, who (?an really blame* the'in ? In any
event, for those* whose minds have long been (*xposcd to the
suggestion-laden influences of the seamr room, the boundary
between the simulated trance and genuine dissociation may
often be very thin.

Chajdrr Train'

MENTAL HEALING

MrRA( Li:-(j'KKs : Tin: Fsvc iiiatkist and j iik Mi:di(.*ink

Man

I'RKATMKN’r OK OISKASK bv DH^ntal lUKlJns vi\n be
traei'il back to the* very earliest (la\s in man's history. The
story oi‘ nu'ntal healing runs from tin* an(*ient ina^ie of
primitive inedieine-inen to mod(‘rn nu‘ihods of elinic^al
psy(*hotherapy. And oddly enough. tlK‘ same prinei[)lc*s
operati* in b(»th : the main difTerenee being that wlierc^as
th(‘ idrmer undt‘rstood nothing of tlie t*a(*tors at work and
attribute<l tlu ni to supernatural agencies, the psychothera¬
pist understands something of the proeess(‘s involved and is
iiikUt no illusion in regard to their natural psychological
basis. To the ordinary' spectator, howi'ver, wh(‘ther two
thousand velars ago or at the pr(‘sent day. psychotherapeutic
metliods of healing, utilising tlie principle of suggestion,
savour of mysti*rious anil supernatural powers. The huiuaii
raee as a wIkjU* has by no unmans escaped from its most
|)rimitive methods of thinking and turns towards tni‘ super¬
natural instinctively whenever its ignorance bars the path
to knowledge.

Today, in Kurope and America, millions believt* in the
power of ‘‘ psychic ” healing. Hy the term psychic* ” is
m(*ant the power of thought or the mind to exert an inthience
over natural conditions and to supers(*dt* the a(‘(*ept(Hl laws
of nature. Faith healing, honu‘opathv, miracle caircs,
psychic healing, radiesthesia ” tliese are some of the
terms wliich modern occ*ult medieine has produced or
jinlu‘rit(‘d.

IhT

198

Thk Psychology of the Occult

The ^reat bulk of psychic ” cures may be put down to
the effect of psy(‘hological suggestion in one or more of its
multiple guises. Psychological suggestion, with or without
the use of hypnotism, forms one of the principal working
methods of that braneli of psychiatry known as psychother¬
apy. Under this heading we can include the cure of pain
in organic diseases and injuries, a(*tual improvements in
many organic diseases, and the restoration of the menhil
health to sufferers from neurasthenia and psychoneurosis.
Psychotherapy might well be described as the art of the
primitive niedieinc man brought up to date and plact'd on a
rational basis.

Mod(Tn clinical methods in psychiatry during the last
twenty-five years hav(' tended to abandon the one-time
dominant method of dir(‘et suggestion in theraptmtie praediee
which reached its height in the schools of Ia<'‘bault, t'harcot
— the “wizard of the Salpetriere *. and Uernheini. Heaunis
and Liegeois at Nancy. Instead, j)syehoanalytieal practice
and other medhods of modern j)sychiatry prefer to (dfi et
their mental healing by getting the patient to assist in his
own cure by enabling him to understand the causes which
have brought about his nervous disorder. This latter aspect
of psychothtTapy, however, do(\s not (!on(*ern us a great d(*al
here; it has little V)earing on mental healing outside th(‘
clinic.

Sudden, and to the lay mind miraculous, cures of physicaT
disabilities may occur when such disabilities are hysterical
in origin. Such disorders an' often (‘ailed functional disorders,
since they only affect the function of the organ concHTued
and can not be traced to any dire(d organic* disease*. The
major functional disorders include partial or total blindness,
paralysis, and mutism; functional dc^afness, too, is m>t un¬
common. Functional disorders are psychogenic in origin ;
they are mainly due, that is, to nu'ntal causes. They arc*,
furthermore, highly amenable in most cases to methods of
mental cure, and oftc*n to methods of direct suggestion.
Wheth(*r the suggestion therapy is applied in the calm

* Tlic.* term psycjJiie ” <»r “ p.sy(;liical ” is a iioriiml synonym lor psy-
chologicaL Amongst believers in tlu^ oecmit psychic ” and
psycliieal ” are often used as eii[)heniistic synonyias for
supernatural or transcendental.

Till-: PSYCHI \TRIST AND THE MeIHCJNE MaN

alinospluTc* ol* a nuMli ri^ clii\k* as part of hospital trcatuu'iit,
or hy a Ihaumatnr^ic* liealer in th(‘ t niotional atmosphere
of a Christian Seic nee ehureh, ilramatie enres are frequently
effeeted. Writ(‘s Jolowicz :

“ Tht* chief (leniain of su^tjestive therupy In, fnun of old, hysterical
piienoiTiena ; and for our purposes we may approximately d<‘S(*ril)e
hysteria as ahnormal physical re-aetioii to psyehie injuries. Since
hysteria may f)sycJio^<*Tiically produce tilt* aspe<*t of almost every
disease, if is in this domain that most of tiie ‘ iiiiraeiiloiis cures ’
have been attained -those for which all the quacks, magnetic Jiealers
and the like <;ain credit with an iin(‘riti<‘al and i redulous public." *

The same faetors o|)e!*ate in th(' eur(‘ of funetional disorders
wh(‘iher the thera})ist is a primitive witch doctor, an aiuaent
Egyptian priest, a Christian Seien(‘e hc'aler. a rustic wart-
cluinncr, a soi-diffaiit radiesthetist, or an iip-to-dale clinical
psycliolluTapist. Tin* tluTapcmtic method alone varies. \Vc
are in reality faced with two diiTerent hut related aspects
in ({(‘aling with the problem of mental healing and suggestion.
OIK*, tlie anthropologi(*al; two, th(* psychoth(Tap(*utie. For
we can not, in d(*aiing with psyehologii*al healiitg outside
the (‘linic, isolate tlu? problem from traditioii, belief and
custom. Today we know that sugg(‘stion w^as responsible
for many of the seemingly iniracuious cures <»f the j)ast.
Yet all through tlie agc*s and right down to tin* prt*sent day
occur stories of miraculous cures, of healing by faith, of
extraordinary powers in certain individuals to (»ur(‘ th(* blind,
the halt, and the lame.

Tin* obseiirc junetioii wlK*re medicine and tlu* occult meet
presents a fascinating chapter in the history of the* mental
life of man. From j)rehist()rie man until the present day
the b(‘liefs of a thousand g(*nerations in the o(*enlt powers
of the medicine man have undergone little change. Are all
these mirael(‘s explainable in t(*rms of normal psychological
principles ? Tlu* answer, regrettably, must be in the atlirnia-
tive. And it may be added thtit few of the stori(*s one hears
are free of distortion, exaggiTation or ivtn downright
falsiiieation ; siieix is the natural r(‘aetiou of the human mind
wheJi faced witli the unknown. Reports of cur(*s of incurable

* .Jolowicz, K., Su^estion Therapff : imd Heycr, (U., Jltfpnosis tnid
Ilypnolherapp, p. 29.

200

The Psychology of the Occult

orjj;anic disease such as eaneer, tabes dorsalis and similar
afteetions invariably compel us to ask how the original
dia^niosis was arrived at in the first instance? For in all
investigations of such cures, proof of competent diagnosis
of the original diseas(‘ lias bccai inevitably lacking. This
single ])oint well illustrates the complexity of the task fa(‘ing
the. ing(‘niioiis rcsear(‘her into the case hislori(‘s of psychic ”
eurtvs.

Psvcho(;em( Disohdeks and l^svc^Ic Cukes

To review the entire (piestion of miracU' eur(‘s and airK‘d
topics r(Tpiir(‘S a l)ri<*f knowledge^ of that branch of medical
study now known as psychosomatic nu‘dicinc. Honghly
speaking, psychosomatic incdicin(‘ conci‘rns itself with
jdiysical disonhrs brought about by psychological causes
and the (jnestion of psychological factors in dis(‘asc gcncTally.

Then* are, to begin with, a v(*ry considerable number of
ailments and jdiysical disord(Ts which arc due sol(‘ly to a
mental or emotional aetiology. In dealing with the* problem
of mental lu‘aling, the* primary princi[)lc to b(‘ar in mind is
that all jdiysi(*al disorders with a psychological origin -
including those cases of organic disease and disability whicli
are either aggrax ated or prolonged by psychological factors
- may be cun*d or in some i»tluT way bc rietited by psycho¬
logical metliods of trcatmcait alone, (’ases of insanity, or
psjfcho.si.s, an* generally not amenable to pur(‘ly psychological
methods oi‘ cure, although if a hysterical (*omj)onent is
])r(‘senl they may be alleviated provid(‘d the patient’s
mental condition lias not deteriorated too far.

It is worth while at this j>oint to give a brief list of psycho¬
logically caused disorders which can be cure<l tem[)orarily
or permanently by psychotherajieutic methods involving
the use of suggestion.

First of all there are thosi* minor disorders gem*rally
associated with )inirasthrnic types of indiv idual, in varying
dcgr(*( s f)f seriousness. These* include fe(‘Iings of ( xtrerne
fatigue and complete lack of energy, aeh<‘s and pains in all
])arts of the Ixxly particularly in the* back, digt'stive dis¬
orders. constipation, inseannia, headaches, blurred vision.

PvSYC’lIOGENlC OTvSCKDERS AND “PSYCHIC” CUKKS 201

irKMisinial clisord(Ts, freneral loss of appetite, etc. Along
^vith the se, but not so j)eeuliarly syniploms of neairasthenia,
may be ineluded a number of skin diseases (e.g. eezema,
aeaie, s(‘borrh(»eie dermatitis and {)soriasis), and also some
minor ailnuMits due to an upse^t glandular system.

Other eomnion disorders vvliieh may also have psyeho-
U»gieal origins are enuresis (“ l>ed-wetting squinting,
warts, p<‘f)tie ulcers, and asthma.

1'h(‘ major fuiudional dise^ases include complete or partial
j)aralysis of body or limbs, blindm‘ss, loss of sp(‘(‘ch (aphasia),
\'oice (aphonia). h(‘aring. loss of th(‘ s(*ns(‘ of feeling locally
(local anaesthesia), ties, chorea, wasting and even atrophy,
and (‘onvulsions. 'l'her(‘ is lio n(‘cd to point out that all
these dis(»rders may also ha\(‘ organic origins.

Functional disorders are not caused by any organic lesion
or organic disease ; they ari‘ nearly always traceable to some
form of subcons(*ious mental eonllict or imua* nervous tension.
A consid(Tablc nunibe*?’ of these disemiers are liable to sudden
cure the blinel te) see*, the* paralytic te> walk, and the* dumb
to speak ! The skilK*d clinical psychotherapist has e)n occa-
sie)n ctferted dramatic re*cove‘rie*s through suggestion therapy.
With this fune'tieinal type e)!’ elisorel(*r, we* ejan. siiic^e they
sj)ring fre>ni me*ntal cause‘s, e*xjK‘e*t cure‘s on mental ’ li?ies ;
and most e)f the nie)rc elramatic cim‘s put down to psyediic
lulling ” and faith healiiig ” have certainly be e‘n cures of
functieinal, as e>j)poscel to e)rganic. eliscasc. Hut

*'a geiie'nit and satisfuclory solution of the f)robh*ni as to how
psye'hological e*xptM’ie'ne*<*s and stresses can l)eeoine i*e)nverted into
pjiysie^al syniptonis is no more possible than a general and satisfactory
t'xplanatiem of tJic rehitiorisiiip t>etween iniiiel anel boely." *

It is the eaircs e)f thevse functiemal elise)rdcrs, the* disorders
due* te) me)rbid hysteria, which have* largely built up the
myth e)f miracle (*urcs anei miracle lu^alcrs. WV shall consider
later the r('')l(* of sugge‘stion in aiding rccoveTV anel alleviating
suffering in cases of organic disease. Here, too. the psycho-
tlierapist, the “ psychic healeT the “ holy wells and the
primitive medicine man may exert considerable* influen(*e
on the outcome of the disease.

('iirran and (hittinann, PsychologicaJ Medicine, }>. 194.

202 The PsYCHorxxiY of the Occui/r

The tact remains, liowever, that nuMital states do have
strong effects on the Inxly’s functions which cannot b(‘ nor¬
mally produced by conscious volition. An c\cry day
example, for the sake of illustration, is afforded by the
uncomfortable phenomenon of blushing. A state of embar¬
rassment or shame produce's a flow of blood up the neck to
the face which can seldom be chec^ked or even initiated ))y
conscious volition. By employing hypnotic suggestion ?nore
drastic effects can hv l)rought about. In fact it is by the
use of hypnotic suggestion that we are (‘nabUxl to induce'
artificially all those symptoms which may be exhibited by
hysterical individuals, including functional paralysis, deaf¬
ness, blindness and itiutism -the very cases in which the
(juack thaiimatiirgist and the psychotherapist alikt* produce
th(‘ir most dramatic* cures.

What is truly surprising is the extent to which the aedion
of the glands and secretions can be influenc*ed by hypnotic
therapeutics. Muscles which normally are c*omplct(*ly
yond voluntary cxaitrol c‘an be often made to rc'ac't to hyp¬
notic suggestion, t'onstipation, milk secretion, menstrua¬
tion and indigestion can all be excited or arrested by hypnotic
suggestion in suggestible subjects. Prc'gnancy symptoms
have b(*en induced by the same methcxl, and c*vcn the heart
can }x‘ induced to altc'r its rate of b(‘ating. Janet cvc'u
r(?(*or(Js the somewha t c)iu*stion-1 Hogging ease of one highly
suggestible subjec*t whose constipation c*ould lx* relieveci at
a single word of command ! Ac'corcling to Moll, the peristal¬
tic ac-tion of the bowel is particularly easy to excite by sugges¬
tion, and there have b(*en known a number of instances in
which the effect of afx rients has be en rhc-c*k(‘d by the saiuc^
niethcxls. Moll furthcT states that menorrhagia (*an be
induc*(‘d by hyj)notie suggestion in the case of c*(*rtain per¬
sons. ' There are several indications that c‘ven the vaso¬
motor system may be se riously affected by hypnotic sugges¬
tion.

We sc'C’, then, the exte nt to which the human organism
niay bcj alfcrtcd by suggestion. We now conic; to those very
similar eflec*ts whic*h may be brought about by hysteria and
autosuggc;stion.

* Moll, A., Hf^pnotism, p. 114.

Some Kefkcts of Hysteria 203

Some Effects of Hysteria on the Body’s Functfons

Hysterical disorders may affect the body's functions to
an (‘ven great(T extent than hypnotic suggestion. Hyst(^ria,
too, may take the form of imitating almost any disease with
which the patient is ac(jiiaint(‘d, iiurluding some (juite
imaginary ones. It is fn^quently diineult to say, without a
thorough inspection, whether the disease imitattHl is due to
psychogenic* factors or not, spc^cially if the patient has had
an opportunity in the* past of accjuiring considerable know¬
ledge of the disc^asc in (jucstion.

In severe cases of functional disorder the patit‘Jit is gene-r¬
ally unaware that the* cause of his disability is psyc^hological.
He (consciously dc-sirc-s the* cure and alleviation of what
app(*ars to him to be a distressing, and sometimes totally
incapacitating, physic'al disorder. Sub(*onsciously he- may
be glad of his infirmity, but this knowledge remains buried,
r(*pr(‘ss(?d into that part of his mind, '' the sub-c*onscious
which has instigated his disorder in the first place. Some
very remarkable* cases of psye*he>somatic disorders have* been
rece)rde*el in the last hundred velars. Today, however, in
Europe and America, such extreme disorders are becoming
rart'r owing to relativc'ly (.*asicr (conditions of living and the
effects of eeiucation.

Here* is an intcre-sting example of hysteria re^sulting in
paralysis of the lower part of the body accompanied by loss
of the hair from the head :

“ A Rirl aged 1*2, at tJit- end of a term at seliool, suffere*d from
iiystc'rie^al para})le*gia, and rapidly reeovered under rest and massage,
but six weeks afterwards tlie paralysis returned .... On tJie morning
of the day after she was found with muesli of her hair out, or eoming
out. She went to bed witii a gocwl head of hair and lost most of it
witliin a few hours. There was no febrile disturbanee and nothing
apparently wrong with the sealp." *

Functional paralysis has also bt^en known to result iu
a degree of ae‘tual physi(*al atrojihv of the limb e*on(*erned.
Fisher notes :

* Glynn, T. R., HysUria ift Smnr of its Aspects ; Hrit. Med. .lourn.,
Nov. 8th., 19i:i.

‘204

Thk Psyc!U)1.(k;v or tiik

“ TJic paralysed limb may be blue and eold and have a elammy
‘ feel.' Alrophie eliunues sometimes oeeur, and even the tinweruails
have been known to waste away. Tiies<‘ atropliU* ehaiifjes liave often
been attributed to disuse of tlie limb afleeted but the eJian^<‘s are
frecpiently too j^reat to be aeecuinted for in this manner, and besides
it has been demonstrated tliat the eondition is amenable to psyeho-
loirieal treatment in tlie same way tliat other hysterical symptoms
are." *

Hysterical tics, spasmodic twitches and jerkings of small
groups oJ* muscles, di rnoristratc liow dct'ply [tsychological
factors may all’cct th()s(‘ parts of the body outside normal
volitional control :

“ The hifstcric tir may involve apparently any miisele of tlie body,
even those belon^in^ to the visceral oreaiis. Thus we find ties not
only of the muscles of the face, (*yes, mouth, hands, arms, neck, etc.,
but also of (he respiratory ami digestive museulature." ■

C'ascs have been reported of hysteri(*al pregnanci(‘s, in
which the patient undergot^s all tlu* symptoms of pregnancy
without any acconij)anying gestation. Janet d('scribi*s the
case of a ])aticnt who had experienced a inark(‘d hysttTical
contraction of her left leg which was cured by hy[)notic
treatment without much difliculty.

Ki^hteen mouths later, after some love episodes, she had a hysteri-
i*al relapse. Menstruation was su])pressed, her breasts swelled a
little, ami the abdomen became rapidly and enormously distended;
there were also severe pains in the belly and shakini; movements of
the abdominal walls ; in a word, she jiresented almost all the symp¬
toms of spurious jirefruMiicy. The same snfjf^estivi* treatment as
before relieved her of these tnuihles in a few weeks." *

Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII and better known,
perhaps, as Bloody Mary ” through her cruel persecution
of the Protestant religion, presents a remarkable historial
case of hysterical pregnancy. It was brought o\\ by the
desertion of her husband Phillip II of Spain and the consc-
qiurnt realisation that her longing for children could never
be fulfilled. It is an ironic fact that much of the bitterness

• Kisher, V. K., Introdnctimi to Abnormal Psycholoffy, p. 209, N.Y. 19^2.

• Kisher, V. K., il>i<l., p. 211.

• .lanet, P., Psycholofitcal Heatinfi^ p. a48.

Major Functional Disororrs 205

and (TU(‘lti(‘s of Ikt n ijfii stcniiiH^d from her thwarted <lesire
for SI (*hild.

The sd)ov(‘ psira^nsiplis show clearly the potential effects
of the mind over bodily fnnefions. (ilands and secretions,
the vasomotor system, vis(‘(TSil organs, even the heart itself,
may in some de^re(‘ be sdfeet(‘d, dirc'ctly or indirectly, either
})y the consciously directed su^^estion of a practised ))syeho-
th(‘rapisl or by tlu^ un(‘onseious autosuggestion of the* subje‘et
himself. The* scope offereel here to the* elisirlatsm e)p(*ratin;^
amon^ ereelulous or su^jrestible p(*e>})le is e>b\ ie)usly (‘norme)us.

Major Fi’Nc tional I)ise)Ri>RRs

The ,iLfre*sile‘sl e)p})ortunities (dr the* “ psye'hie* healer",
Christian Se*ientist or primitive fakir lie* in the sphere* of the
msijor fune*tie)nal diseirders, in whie'h the seaises sind organs
thems(‘h e*s may Ik* unaffe*et(‘el e3rgsini(!silly yet renuiin unsible
to carry enit their ne)rmsil fune*tie)n of feeling, s(*eing, hesiring
or me)veme‘nl.

In Eure)j)e anel America toelay. hysterical elisemiers are
usually cured or at least alleviated in the vast majority of
eases without undue ditheulty. In fe)rmer time\s, however,
and even today in the less devek)ped countries of the wwld
wh(*r(* hardsliip and poverty an* part of the daily round,
particularly in the cities, functional blindness and paralysis
are not infrequently found. In such (*onditions as these,
ignorance and suggestibility and the sight of others stricken
with like diseases lead to imitative liysterieal syndromes.
The imitative tend(*ney in hysteria is a strong om?, and the
fact that diseased individuals arc scarcely to be seen in the
cities of western civ ilisation, being confined to hospitals, has
contributed greatly to th(* reduction of functional maladies.

Nearly all cases of functional disease are the result of
inner inenial conflict -between the individuaVs instincts and
his social duties and obligations. Wh(*n the mental struggle
becomes too violent, the sub-conscious mind seizes upon a
compromise unlikely to arouse social censure, a compromise
which at the same time circumvents the urge to give way to
H shameful or socially undesirable surrender to primitive
emotions. The first world war produced tens of thousands

206

Thk Psychology of thk Occui.t

of such instances of what are now termed by soni<‘ schools
of psychiatry conversion syndromes. These are distiiu^t from
cases of conscious i»ialinperinj^ and an^ easily distinguishable,
though there are, naturally, border-line eases diffieult to
(‘lassifv. Direct suggestion in such instances does not usually
result in complete cures, but only iu cures of a temporary
nature. Amongst primitive peoples, how(*ver, direct suggt's-
tion may efleet permanent cures owing to the greater sug¬
gestibility of the individual.

Autosuggestion, reacting on a temperament rendiTed
sugg(‘stible by fear or other emotion, has very oftcai resulted
in the instantaneous oecurrence of a functional disorder.
Sir William Browm mentions a tyj)ical ease of a soldier who
iKcaine jviralysed w’ith fear when a shell burst near him.
He becam(‘ hysterically paralysed in his lower limbs through
a process of autosuggestion inspired by his belief that he
had in fact become permanently paralysed. He rt iuaincd
paralysed until treated by therapeutic suggestion. ' It is
evident that here we are faced with a situation analagous to
that of hypnotic suggestion, the r(‘(juisite degree of suggesti¬
bility being c'btained by the man’s strong desire, hitherto
strictly controlled in the interests of duty, to gtd away from
the battlefield.

The reality of functional afflictions cannot be denied when
we are faced with cases of functional catalepsy, analgesia
and blindness. A patient suffering from functional local
analgt\sia appears not to feel the pin thrust into his arm.
That a part of his mind is aware of the pin-thrust becomes
evident, but the sensation of pain does not enter his conscious¬
ness.

The abolition of the sense of pain, as is well known, can
be achieved in many individuals by means of hypnotic
suggestion. In the same way hypnotic suggestion can
induce states of functional blindness, paralysis, deafness,
mutism and the wdioh* rang(» of functional disorders arti¬
ficially. Functional maladies have been known, before the
advent of modern methods of psychiatry, to last for many
years. Even today long term functional disorders tend to
remain permanent if neglected over a period of years. In
past eras, before the medi cal profession had realised their
' Hs^fcholo^y and the Sciences, p. 1

Tiir: CoxDirroNS fok Mkxtal IIeaijnc;

207

nature, sueh eonversion-syndroiues frecjuently Instead until
death. It is the drarnatie cures of these Inn^ term funetional
dist*ases by sug^rostion which we witness in the stories of the
New Testament and which have ^iven rise to the be^lief iii the
supernatural pow(Ts of ^reat healcTs from anticpiitv down
to the prescFit day.

The Condittons foh Mental IIealinc;

" Faith healing is not such a misn<jmer as it may appear.
Faith, or b(‘li(‘r in th(‘ powers of tlie healer, is a primary
n'i|uisit(‘ for tlie full ])ower of sugge stion to take elleet. The
same a])j>lies to belief in the powTTs of' Jioly wells, re ligious
relies and the ellieaey of prayers or talismans. All suggestion
is ultimately dependent on the subjtnd’s lx lief in the possibil¬
ity of the d(*sired efTect. And wIutc* conscious (x^lief is
la(*king the subco!»scious mind may be able to suj)ply this
lack- in tliis way many a self-proclaimed sceptic has been

converted -or belief may be artificially induced by hyp¬
nosis, or by tli(‘ right kind of emotional stimulus siah as
may occur, for example, at religicms revivalist na^etings.

The importance of obtaining the right atmosphere in mass
liealiiig seances is fully api)reciatcd by the* professional
thaumaturgic healers. Collective^ suggestion is stimulated
by all imaginable arts. The liope of the patie nts to be cured
bee*oin<\s e)l)jcctified inte) the belief that they will be* enired,
edte ii to sueh an extent that patients witJi incurable organic
disease depart believing that thew liave been healed and
remain, for a time at any rate*, ceHu iruTd that tliedr suffering
has bevn totally banislu*d. Tliey may become oblivious to
their pain, and, in certain cases when psychogenic factors
play an important role in the develojnnent of their malady,
the external sym})toms may disappear, although the disease
itself still continues its deadly work. The latter j)henomenon
is also to be observed in the clinic, often to a remarkable
degree.

One of the greatest of the thaumaturgic healers was the
(ierman, Valentine Zeileis. He, like many others before
him, used the old occult principle of “ contact betAveen the
patient and himself as conducive to obtaining the maximum

20S

Thk Psychol(>(;y of tiik OcriM/r

eflect. The belief in the benefits of eontaet with the healer
has existed throughout recorded history and is exeinplitied
in the traditional act of the laying on of hands/' Until
the days of Charles II the kings of England W(Te rt pufed to
have the power to cure scrofula or the King's Evil by mere
contact with tlu^ sovereign, and fre(|uently the scrofulous
swellings were rej)orted to be alleviat(*d. Valentine Zeileis
supplemented tlie eontaet principle by the use of “ magical
apparatus whose effec't was to increast' the already suggestibl(‘
state of his credulous patients. This is what Castiglioni has
to say concerning this famous wonder>healer.

“The first and most important point is the ‘ (Vmlaet ' htdwctn
the healer and the ])atient, by means of a iiia^ie wami toueiiiiiir the
body. Siieh eoniaet has all the eharaet(*risties of a ma^ie praetiee,
and is performed to the aeeoinpaiiiment of iut^lily su^^^e divt' piieno-
mena. Tlie wand is eonneeted with a higli-pow(‘re(l eurnait and,
aeeordinji to Zeileis, becomes luminous upon eontaet with the diseas(‘d
or^ran. Healing* is brought about by this (‘ontaet, repeated three or
four times at successive sittings.

*• The second feature is the * atmosphere,' the magic aspect of the
room, w'oirdly lighted by pieces of apparatus which throw oil inter¬
mittent beams of light, with streaks of sparks w hich alTetd 1 he skin ;
the thaurnaturgic aspect of the healer, wiio appears in a priestly
costume and whose long white beard gives him a vent*ruble api)ear-
an(te ; the play of w'ords that appear mysterious to the profane, who
know little or nothing of tlie helium lamp, or radium-lx^aring alloys,
and of ultra-violet rays ; finally a complicated though ap|)areritly
simple set of preparations during the long wait of the patients, the
suggestion exerted on them by the atmosphere, perva<le<l with con¬
viction of the miraculous power of Zeileis, and, abov<* all, the enor¬
mous prosfKrrity that his abilities have brought to him, to his
collaborators, and to the whole district.

‘•The third and perhaps most decisive featun* is the system of
receiving fifty or a hundred patients at a time, all half-naked, all
equally suffering and hoping, all equally ready to receive the niira<‘le.
This feature gives rise to reciprocal and collective* suggestion, mani¬
fested through phenomena that have been amply studied by sp(*eialists
in mass psycholog>\ There is no need to mention the numberless
examples given by history and experiments of the great, importance?
of colieedive suggestion : every single patient who claims to have l)eeu
cured, singing the praises and merits of the healer, immediately
arouses a wave of hope, a general will to be cured, and absolute faitli
in the miraculous act.” *

The same principle of building up the patient’s expectation,
and the induction of the right frame of mind for the effect

' Castiglioni, A., Adventures of the Mind, p. 325.

Pi MI \I \ N «>< I |)i %i<»NsrH\ii s \ Siuxm i Hoiui x I<»nm»imh»v

riu Hntha\oiI^^ in nnWiI for their ixtn im postiin^ lo I

ph>sK i1 luiniihood
( Spt ( hnpter 1(»)

1*1 MI Ml V \o(,i Vjksiom of III! inirviioN \( i

lliis illiistntmii slious thf Yogi |M»is<d in mid mr Ins h iml ristmg |i<r|)tl\
on I drap( d st i( k

iSrf ( hftpUr H»l

Tiiv: CoNornoNs fou Mkntal IIkalinc;

201)

of suggestion to ()})erate, was followed by the orgaiiiscTs of
the eelebniteci (iures at Lourdes in its h(‘vday. Here again,
atmosphere ” is all imj)()rtant.

“ The patient is not allowed to dispense with preliminaries. He
must not straijj[htway toueh the relie or <lrink the healing waters of
the saered spring. There is a probationary period, a propitiatory
novena. There are long waits at the gateway of the temple during
whi(di the sufferer listens to sermons and n peats prayers. Above all,
during thes<‘ })eriods of probation, the sick liear a great deal about
miraeuloiis cures, and have an t>pportunity of looking at the number¬
less votive offerings. In a word, their entry into the temple is a slow
one, and their minds are prepared hy a special ineubation.*’ *

Not nil tlu* mcclienl profession have citspised the efii(‘aey
of lh(* wonder eures. Professor Char(‘nt. on (»ecasion, sent
patients to Lourdt s on the grounds that, with some types of
people, the (dfeet of autosuggestioti would be of Jiion* (‘llieaey
than any siigg(‘stjon>theraf)y he might (‘mj>loy at the Sal-
petriere. (’astiglioni writes :

“ A greater (jontribution to these siieeesses is made* by the eoneiir-
rent influenee of objects or actions which, heeause tiny are surroimded
with the Jialo of suj»ernatural p(»wer, are fiiore apt to provoke tJie
stale of mind in which the Jiealer's skill may be sueeessful. This
explains why a fortune-teller or a s(M)1lisayer wlu) claims to have
suptu'naturai visions or an old p(‘asant wlio enjoys the re])utatiou of
a wizard is able to obtain results tlial would be impossible for the
most famous physician, possessing perfect seientitie ecfuipment."*

It is important, ol* course, not to be carried away by the
successes of than mat urgie healing. There art* very many
types of mental healing which are far mort' tdTeetively
<‘arri(*d out in mod(‘rn psychiatric clinics. Xcv(Tthelcss,
the success of some of the thaumaturgists lias ofttui l)ccu
little short of amazing. This success, led it be admitted, is
<luc solely to the methods cmployi‘d—methods vvhieli the
psychiatrist very jtropcrly scorns to us(‘.

It is well known that some individuals possess jxnvcrs of
mental healing of an order far superior to the majoritv of
their fellows. It is this fact whi(*li has contributed a great
deal to the occult myth. That there are differtMiees of in¬
dividual ability in the art of p.syehologieal healing n^mains
as true for the clinician as for the lhaumaturgie Iw aler. One
thing can be stated with certainty. The moral (pialities

* .hinet. P., Psffcholofiical //(Yinwg, p. 47.

• Pastiglinni, A,, oj>cit, p. Ill Ik

‘210

ThK PSYCHC)L(K.Y OF THK OcC'lM/r

possessed by the healer affect the issue very little and only
indirectly. Hoth saints and nioney-yrahbiny quacks have
aeejuired tlu' j)o\ver to lu‘al, the one as effeetiv(‘ly as the
otlier. The saint, however, may sometimes have the advan¬
tage in that he lre(juently evokes a fec'ling of awe du(‘ to the
strongly ingrained r(‘ligif)us beliefs and traditions of those
around him; if the miracles of the New Testam(*nt, the
Koran, or the Hhagavad-Gita are in the back of the patient’s
mind or in the l‘or(*front of his eemseiousm ss, it will automat i-
(‘ally lead to a state of increased sugg(‘stibilitv.

Th(‘ ability to indue(‘ belief in the healer’s own powers is
a prime requisite* in suggestion-therapy, tx* th(* heal(T a
hospital psychiatrist or an oriental miracle worker. Some
personalities have* the* reniarkabh* quality which enabl(‘s
tlnni to induce complete belief in their powers, despite
failures and shorteoniings which an* often only too Hpj>arent
to th(‘ critical eye. Saints and charlatans throughout the
ages have be<‘n fully aware of this factor arul hav(* taken full
advantagt* of it. The suggestibility of th(* sufferer is often
increased wh(‘n an clement of personal devotion enters iido
his regard for the healer, a prineipk* which the psy(*hoanaly-
tical schools, with their ph(‘nonu‘non of transforncr, have
readily utilised.

Suggestion is sometinus held to contain three main
variable factors : the sour<‘e of the suggestion, the content
of the suggestion, and the n^eipient of the suggestion. These
three* variable s must be taken into account in every single
instance of psyehotherapeaitie suggestion. The* source of
suggestion is the healer himself. His j)ersonality, his tech¬
nique, his insight and his theor(*tical ba(*kground inevitably
vari(\s consid(*rably from those of his (*olleagues. The content
of the sugg(*stion consists of what is actually suggested to
the patient, the manner in which it is said, the einaimstaiices
under which it is given, and the physical and emotional
environm(‘nt obtaining at the time. The recipient of the
suggestion is the patient, with his incalculable characteristics,
his potentialities and idiosyncrasies of reaction, his beliefs
and preconceptions. Recognition of th(*s(' thn*e variables
helps to explain why different psychologists publish different
figures for the suggestibility of their patients, and why a

Thi: Conditions for Mentai. Healing

211

psychotherapist succeeds in one case where another fails,
though bolli use the same methods.

The psychotherapist, the medicine man and the thaumat-
urgic healer may frequentiy resort to th(‘ use of hypnotic
suggestion for the cure of functional disorders and the relief
of pain. Hysteria invariably renders the patient highly
suggestibh': that is why functional maladies are often
relatively easy to cure, for they themselves are symptoms
of hystcTia.

With patients wlio show little or no signs of overt or latent
Jiysieria, hypnosis is generally tlu* most eire(*tive means of
increasing suggestibility. A ])alient who is already deeply
hysteric dot s not always require hypnosis : suggestion can
1)(‘ given while he is merely in a n^laxed state ; or alternatively
a highly emotional state may provide* the re([uisite suscepti¬
bility to suggestion, as in tht‘ scamrs of the thaumaturgists,
Cliristian Sei<‘ntists and others.

The j)ower of suggestion is no! necessarily efleeted by the
depth of the hypnotic trance. licntTally speaking, in
modern (‘linical practice a drowsy state is all that is required,
and in refractory patients this is sometimes brought about
by the use of such drugs as evijian. thiopentone or sodium
amytal. The j)rimiti\'e witch doctor induces the drowsy
stat(* by monotonous chanting, rhythmic beating of drums
and tom-toms, andjike his civilised colleague, may also resort
to the use of drugs. With most patients, howt'vcr, the
deep(T the hypnosis the more etlective suggestion becomes ;
the mon* sp(*ctacular feats of hypnotic* suggestion have
generally been carried out while the subject is in a state of
deep hypnosis.

R(*p(‘atcd hypnotisation may rendcT the subject increasing¬
ly susceptible, and with some subjects a state of hypnosis
may eventually be brought about by a single word of com¬
mand givcai orally or even in wTiting. Such patients become
highly sugg<\stible and were apt, in the past, to fall into the
role of somnambulic guinea-pigs for the experimental
<livcrsions of the hypnotist.

212

ThK PSYCJIOLOCJY OF THK OcCt’I/r

Mentat. Heaijno

e now come to th(‘ tjiiostion of the actual cures of disease
and sulferinjT by psycliolo^ical means. During the first
world war thousands oH cases of “ sliellslux k were cured
by therapeutic suggestion. The two great British authori¬
ties at that time were William Brown and William Mac-
Dougall. By their numerous contributions to the literature
of the subject, the intelligent layman has been able to
learn how eases of paralysis, blindness, aphonia, and a liost
of oth(T incapacitating disabiliti(‘s of psyehogi iue origin have
been cured—sometimes in thv space of a few minutes and
with no more than a few earefully chosen words. Rise*,
take u}) thy bed and walk is not the product of a devoted
enthusiast’s imagination. It was the eontident command of
a suggestion-therapist who divined the nature of the para-
lytie's eomplaint and who took advantage of the suffcTer’s
belief in his ability to heal. It was by the power of s\iggcs-
tion that the great Jewish mystic lu^aled “ issu(‘s of blood
or menorrhagia, made tlie dumb to spt^ak and the blind to
see. That he had numerous failures is not to be doubted ;
these, understandably enough, were not recorded.

Suggestion is sometimes conveyed under queer guises.
In the Middle Ages the main principle of any physick
was its nasty taste or smell. The people of those times looked
upon with suspicion any medicine that lacked these dclectabk'
qualities. Of the revolting brews concocted for thi* sick
and ailing in those ignorant days many records bear witnc'ss.
These frequently had tlie saving grace of producing seeming
cures or bringing about expected results through the effects
of suggestion.

Scatological “ physicks ” played an important part
amongst the poor of medieval England. For example to
hasten the onset of childbirth a common remedy was the
quaffing of a mug of the husband’s urine, whil(‘ horse dung
mixed with wine was considered efficacious in expelling the
placenta or “ afterbirth ”, Such effects as these might
naturally have produced through suggestion in a suggestible
age w(Tc doubtless supplemented i)y the effects of th(^
“ physick ” in its obvious role as an em(‘tic or cathartic ;
probably, therefore, the}' often achieved their object.

But although the actual medical properties of excrement

Mental Healing

21:5

ai(‘ in the main limited to its (‘fleet as an em(‘tie, those of
urine are eonsiderable, so that <nu* sliould not he too hasty
in attributing a\iy VH‘uetk*ial ettVets U\ svi^^estiou <\nly. To
illustrate this point, it is not f>i‘n(‘rally known that in many
eonntry distriets of England today (and })r(‘sumablv in other
countri(‘s also) the drinking of urine is still frcTjiiently ])rae-
tis(‘d as a rcH'ognised eure aiid j)reventi\(‘ for severe boils
and earbimeles. A cupful tak(‘n ea(*h monnng for three
suc(‘c*ssive days is usually d(‘(‘med (‘lh(*acious, but the ‘‘ tr(‘at-
mc'Fit " may l)e eontinu(‘d for a week if consickred nee('ssary.
1'h(‘ salt, arid the sulphates in (‘ombiiiation with (*aleium
and niagn(‘simn j)resent in uriiu\ are almost certainly
responsible for any Ix iu'fieial results achie ved. The fre(‘dom
with whi(di the subject may still b(‘ discussed demonstrates
an inter(‘sting absence of ethical tabu which may surprise
many.

Th(‘ (dder clini(*al cures of functional dist‘as(‘ oi'ivn se(.*nu‘d
mysterious even to the j)sy(‘hotherapists themsi‘lves. Lys,
for example'. nev(‘r imd(‘rslood tlu‘ principles involved when
h(.‘ cured patients by first hypnotising another person who
then, at the word of command, commenced to indulg(‘ in
mimicry of the j)atient’s symptoms in front of tlie latter.

Hypnotic suggestion, as has alrc'ady been observed,
frequently results in astonishing cures of' psyc'hogenie organic
troubles. Oik' of the (*arliest cas(*s ri'corded in which the
secr('tion of milk has been aHeeted is that citi'd by Ksdaile.
His sister-in-law, when weaning a child, suffered from the
su'ciimulation of milk in her biuasts which mad(‘ them
j)aiid‘ul and swollen. He hypnotised her. and in half an
hour she was fr(‘e from pain. Next mor»ung the brc'asts were
soft and comfortable, and tluTc was no further seen tion of
milk. Dr. H(‘ss(‘nstein, of Kast Prussia, has r(‘j)orted a case
in which tin* secretion of milk entirely coast'd owing t(»
emotional (*aus(‘s, and was rapidly rc'stonxl by suggestion.
In a. remot(‘r age tliis would be considered a typical exaiu])k‘
of supernatural healing, eithcT by divine or iidernal agt'iuyv.

K. Ash, in his Fnifh and Saff^csiion. reetwds the (‘urioiis
ease of Dorothy Kerin who, aftt'r being bedriddtMi for years
apparently sufltTing from phthisis, had a visual and auditory
hallucination of an angel who commandt'd Iut to get up and
^ Macy, A., fiyjmotmn tixpUnned^ pp.

*211.

Tut: Psvciioi.ocY of tiik Occvi.r

walk. The efVoet of tliis powcTful suggest if)n springing from
her own subcons(*ious mind etteeted an immediate cure f)f
what eventually turned out to be mainly a fimetional disa¬
bility. This rare type of eure has the strongest appeal for
miraele-mongcTs. Many a religious moNcanent has b(‘(‘n
given birth by a less auspieious psyehologieal anomaly.

When religious movements are based on purported miraeu-
lous healings, then* is an invariabl(‘ h^ndenev to emotional
exaggeration and a eomplete loss of eritieal faeulty ainong
the devotees. C'omj)ar(‘, for example, the metaphysical
obstetrics of the early days of the Christian Science move¬
ment, which resulted in much ne(‘dU‘ss suffering and cost a
good many deluded women their lives. Ihlief in the in-
effieaey of surgery and medi(‘al treatment and in the efficacy
of prayer has a long history. Psychology has even giviai it
a \\ii\w --the(ypathia.

The earlier excesses of Christian Science and similar
movements have today more or less disappeared, Jiiid
although there is still in the Christian S(‘ien(*(' movement a
great deal open to serious criticism ther<‘ is another side to
be taken into account. Like the spiritualistic churches,
it is undoubted that Christian Seienee has offered many
individuals a faith which is to soiu(‘ degree* a m(‘asur(‘ of their
needs, and that its methods have fmpiently benefitt*d the
health of many sufferers from minor psychogenic etuniilaints
sucii as indigestion, headaches, insomnia ti alia. It provides
many lonely or “ ill-adjusted ” souls with an interest in life
which they would otherwise lack entirely. The onlookcrr,
however, may well wonder and stare at some of their activi¬
ties. Here is an examph* of Christian Seienee autosugges¬
tion in the form of a prayer wdiieh, although it may app(‘ar
merely amusing to most people, uridoubte(il> could be effec¬
tive wdth certain temperaments :

“■ Helj) us stoutly to aniiiii . . , tliat wt* have no Dyspepsia. Uuit
never had Dyspejisia, tliat we never W'ill have Dyspepsia, that there
is no such tiling, that there never has been any sueh thing, and that
1 here n(‘ver will be any sueh thing. Arnen.”

Many of the cures effeet(*d by ostecipathy in the past have
certainly been due to suggestion. Suggestion is also a.
principle factor in homeopathy. Homeopathy is tlie pur¬
ported treatment of disease by drugs, usually in minute

Mental Healing

‘215

quantities, wliieli in a Iiealthy person would produc^o synip-
torns like those of the disease itself. It is an inter(*sting
relie of synipatlietie inagie.

Th(‘ believer in iniraeles might justifiably elaiin that he is
acquainted with scores of eas<‘s of purely organic disease
diagnosed and eontirnied by qualified physicians, which have
been cured, or at least greatly relieved, by psychic ”
heal(Ts, l)y prayer or by holy waters. The believer in mir¬
acles can, in fa(*t, put u)) an excellent ease for his belief along
these lin(‘s. It is, however, in the occult interj)retatiou
of such eases that his error lits, due to his ignorance of
the prinei})les of psychotherapy. His mismid(a*standing
ot‘ the real issues is not surprising, in view of the fact that
the medical profession itself is, as a whole, (juit(‘ surprisingly
ignorant of th<‘ rol<‘ played by psychological factors in
organic diseas(‘ and inj\iry, and of the })otentialities of
psyehoth(THj)y.

The principle that dist ases and boilily disorders generated
primarily by psychologi(‘al factors (psycdiosomatie disorders)
arc subject to cure by psyehologi(‘al methods of healing is
easily understood. Without rep(‘ating again the list of
purely functional disorders, it may be as well to mention
again certain of those* maladic's which may have, wholly or
in part, a psychogenic origin and which may be cureil or
alleviat(*d by psychotherapy. These include a number of
organic troul>les such as (*(‘rtain affections of the heart (e.g.
pseudo-angina pectoris), kidneys, digesti\e system, men¬
struation and bow(*ls ; (‘limaeterie disturbances and sea¬
sickness ; psychogenic bronchitis and asthma, psychogenic
exopthahnie-goitre or Clraves’ Dis('asi\ and I'crebral arterios¬
clerosis ; skin diseases such as eezma, psoriasis, aene and
related afllietions.

Kveryone is familiar with the village wart-charmer, who is
generally regarded by the village folk as a purveyor of white-
magic. Wart-(‘harming providers a neat exainple of the
effect of psychotherapeutic suggestion. Occasionally there
crop up stori(‘s of indivicluals who claim to be able to cure
warts on animals by similar means. It cannot be said
dogmatically that such cures arc impossible.

Two appanaitly w(‘ll-authentieated cases of such cures of
cattle and a horse arc recorded in one of the Journals of the

'rm: I^v^YtMioi.ocV oi* 'iiii: Occri/r

21 <;

S.IM{, ' In liirli Vii^c the animals were badly afflii*t(‘d with
warts and were (aired within a i'cw weeks. Sn(*h tal(‘s,
however, ne(‘d further in vest i^al i(»u before ih(‘V are to be
taken s(‘riously. For wlaa-eas sn(‘h eiin's in the ease of iiiiman
Ixani^s are simply (‘X])lained as due to th(‘ (‘fleet of su^m‘st ion,
it is seareely likely that the same methods would su(*eeed in
prodneinn- any i‘lfee*t on livi stoek. In such instance's it would
ix' wise to assume that some* form of internal or <*\t(*rnal
medicament was appli<‘d.

A 1^00(1 many organic diseases of the' body can be' indirrrth/
be'nefiteel by sugoe.stion-the'rapy. Fontine'utal ])syehoth(‘ra-
j)ists iind fhat if offeai helps in (*as(‘s of multij)l(‘ sele'rosis.
tabes and pulmonary tubereailosis. Kven il‘ the' organie*
diseas(' ean not be* e ure'd e'ithe'i* by surge ry or direct medical
treatme'uf, sugge'stion-the'rapy or other psyehotlie'rapeaitic
methods ean relie ve' e>r even banish the j)ain or ine‘e»nvcni('ne*(‘,
and ean e^fte n I'etard the* advance* of ehremie disease to a
remarkable extent. In the ease of jiulmonarv tube'reiilosis,
for (‘xarnple*, suggestion ean eontribute‘ not a little' to the^
cure* by improving the* ge'iu'ral ee)ndition of the* j)atienFs
appetite, '

Sugge'stion-’lhera])) ean mitigate' fhr rfferts of incurable*
organic disease in several diflerent ways : one*, by the*
alleviation eif ])ain ; (we), by the* removal of the overt symp¬
toms or by inducing a compensative' re'aetion ; three, by the*
relief of anxiety and other worries which have* b(*<‘n ilraining
the patient's re se rv e* of strength. Sue*]i alle*viations of disease-
are nndoubtediv dange rous and may ultimately prove* fatal
if tlie* snggestie)!! treatment is f*arri('el out by thaumalurgic
heale‘rs and their like; for the' patient is thus fVeejue'ntly
d(-ce*iv(*fi info believing tliat he has bee n cured of his disease
and fails te) e)bfain ])rope'r medical atte'ution on that aee‘e>unt.
Hundreds of the tales conce*rning the* allege*d cure of incurable;
dise'ase e>riginate in this way. Perhaf)S the* gre*ate*st factor
in the'ir origin is the* relief e)r banishment e)f pain by suggc'stion.
Kv'cn when the* relief is only te*mporary and the disillusion<*d
patient has bee'ome* aware* that his disease or injury is no
Ix'fter than Infore, the tale* of his “ cure* " has alre'aely [>e*eii

' Voi. laon, ])|).

^ .lolowiez, t;., Suf^estlnn Thrrafftf ; auel He-yer, (i., Ilifptutsis and
Ifppuofhrrapp, p. ‘ja.

Mkxtal Hkai.ixc;

217

broadcast and boli(.‘ved by iniiuiiKTable (Mithusiasts devoted
to the eanse of sujKTnatiiral healing, anci may even have
found its Avay into the daily papers.

Every condition of disease and ill heiilth j)resents symptoms
which are psyeholo^’i(*al in origin. Mental factors exert a
delinite, and somelinas vital, influenee on the course of
disease or illiu ss. Sueli psychological factors vary according
to the ])atient's temperament. Theraj)eutie suggestion or
other forms of })sy(‘lioth(‘rapy can b(‘ used to aid in the cure
of most diseases. The “ will to live ” and tlu; wish to die ”
altitude^ of patients can profoundly inlluen(‘e the recovery
during a si rious illness or after a serious accident or oi>cTation.
Wh(‘n the doctor s diagnosis is proved wrong by the unex¬
pected death of a patient, it is not infre()uently due to his
lack of insight into the patient's mental state at tlic time.

The psychological conditioTi of a sick or injured patient
is of great importance in the progress or lack of progress
towards recovery. Marked debility and loss of rt'sistance
to dis<‘ase !!iay be caused by purely psychological factors.
Not only arc such <‘as{‘s more susceptible to inf(‘Ction thaji
others, but once the disease or infection has taki^n hold, it is
often more serious in its eo!\sequences, re (‘overy is retarded,
and, in cases of the more (‘xhausting illnessc‘s and in injuries
where shock is prononneed. th(‘ patient has not the energy
to institute a recovery. Actually ilu* situation is not as had
as it may aj)pear. for in eas(*s of siTious illness subeonseious
mcjital eonfliets and nervous strain generally disappear,
since tlie factors which gave risi* to them in tin* patient’s
c\(‘rv<lay life liavc largclv n^ceded into (he background.
N<*V(Tthclcss, there still nanaiiis grt*at scope for aicling the
j)aticnt to stinuilati' or revive tliosi' psychological factors
which lielp in increasing liis resistance* to disease or shock.

In (‘as(*s where debility and loss of r(‘sistancc to disease
or shock can be attributed to })sychologi(*al causes, thera¬
peutic suggestion, whether administeTcd by a psychiatrist
or by a “ j)syeliie " healer, can obviously lx* of gr(*at value.

If sueli tn^atment is giv(*n by a |)syc‘hie " liealer it will
often seein to the patient, in his ignorance*, that th(‘ liealer
has had a dinrily bt'ncHeial (and suj)t*rnatural) effect on the
disease itself. lie will fail to appr(‘eiate* the* true cause* of
his improv(*ment in h(‘alth. He einly knows that his doctor

218

'riiK PsYCMU)i,<u;v uv Tin: Occui/r

hiis failed to him any relief but that a so-ealled (juaek
in a eountry village has made liim fe(‘l litter and stronger
and a great deal mor<‘ ho])eful. His b(‘li('f in the latter’s
oeeult power is eonlirmed and strengthened and this in turn
makes subsecjiKiit suggestion more effective still. And so
it goes on. Many in(livi<luals have their own “ psychie ”
healer who aloiu* is capable of giving thcmi some of their
“ life-force \Vith many old people of set convictions
there can b(‘ no doubt that tlu^ so-(*alled psychic Ixaler has
some advantages, not only over the medical practitioner
but over the clinical psyehiatrist as well. The* hriirf in
oeeiiltism is in itself a higlily poi(‘nt source of effective
suggestion, with which th(‘ psychiatrist, on ethical grounds,
prefers to dispense.

All })liysieians are aware of tin* importance* of the patient's
morale in serious illm'ss or injiuw, yet relatively few urv
acquainted with th<‘ full role played by psychological factors
in disease. lIow(‘ver, it is becoming increasingly r(‘(*ognised
that there is no organic disturbance* whi(*h is not aeeompani(*d
by psychological eliange, and that this in turn is liable to
play an ever inen^asing role in the eours(‘ of the illness, some¬
times ultimately efiecting a (heisivr influenec' on the* physio¬
logical processes involved. This is particularly true with
patients of extreme natural sensitiveness ; psyehiatrist and
medicine man alike* may contribute materially to the patient’s
W(*ll-l)eing in such instane(‘s.

With nervous patients suggestion-thera])v freqvn ntly has
enormous advantages over other metli(jds. The* psycho¬
analyst knows only too well that by resolving the patient’s
subconscious })syeliologieal conflicts a rese rve of potential
energy is ther(*by released. Sugg(*stion can, by a different
method, render available a similar supj)ly of emergy which
cannot fail to aid recovery in eases where* d(‘[)ilitation and
low resistanere* to disease oeeair. No one can tell with e*er-
tainty the* exte*nt to which elisease* generally is due te) psycho-
Iogie*al malaeljustment. (iroddeek has even put forwarel
the extreme vie‘w tliat the subconscie)Us mind ee)uld, under
the right cemditions, prevc'iit the body frenn be?ing affVsded
by the majeirity e)f elisease*s te) which mankind is prone.

All types of elis(*ase ajul injury are influenee*d by psyeho-
k)gieal factors ; thcra])cutic suggestion can often use this

Mkntai. HkAI-INO

21

knowledge to inHuene.e favourably the eourst* of the (Min*.
This is equally tnu*, wh(*ther the sufferer rcMMMves the thrra-
peutie suggc^stion at the hands of a elinieal jisyehotherapist,
through the thauinaturgie displays of a iniraele h(*aler
or through the effects of autosuggestion during a visit to
Lourdes. It is ignoranei* of the principles of psychotherapy
and psyehosoiiiatie iiiedieiiK* which l(*ads so often to beliefs
in supernatural or ‘‘ psychic* ” healing. Unless, how(‘V(‘r,
the suggestive treatment is eoiitinued. tlic beneficial r(‘sults
obt^iined are usually only t(Mnporary.

The temporary nature of many supposed miraek* eun^s
is a factor which the* d(*vote(‘s of physic (Milts invariably
ignore, if oik* may judge bv the literatim* of tin* subject.
In general, permanent improvements may lx* said to occur
only when the patient retains a lasting belief in the eilicMKiy
of the psychic h(*aling or in the powers of tlu* lualer ; and
if this b(‘li(*f is sup[)leni(‘nt(*d at intervals by jirayer or other
methods of attaining eoneentration on the d(*sired (Mid. this
may easily result in an autosuggestive situation analogous
to repeated dos(*s of suggestion-tlwmipy.

Many of well-auth<‘nti<*ated aecMiunts of th(* IxMieficial
<‘ff(*c1s of autosugg(‘stion in the guise of jirayer hav(* been
reporterd in tiu? past. Those for whom prayer has b(?en the
m(*ans of mitigating suffering can neve r doubt that the* r(*Iief
was brought about by nu'aiis of a divim* agciK^y. For such
as fh(*se instructions in the principles ol’ medical psychology
would lx* pointless and many eases would lx* positively
harmful. Th(*y w'oiild gain little* and lose* much that is val¬
uable in the*ir liv(*s. The lx*lie‘ve‘r in divine intervention,
in faith h(*aling, or in the occult power of the psy(*hic
healer” is, in any event, not like*ly, wlie*n pre*s('nted with the*
rational facts of the* matie*r, to change* his beliefs, for they
arc too de*e*p-s(rt.

An intere^sting exainj)le of sugge-stion therapy is sci n in
so-eall(*d “ t(*lepathic h(*aling ”. The patie*nt arranges with
the psychic he*alcr for tlie latter to transmit his h(*aling
imjiulses “ telepathically ” at a certain hour (*aeh day. The
patient who places such eonfide*nee‘ in the (‘Hicacy of his
lu*ale*r\s thoughts generally sulfe*rs from mild mental disorde*rs,
neurasthenia or psy(*hon(Mirosis, and, in e*ons(*(jue*n(H^, from

220

ThK PSYCITOI.OGY OF THK OCCUI/F

such maladies as recurrent headaches, backaches, depression,
lack of energy and nervous exhaustion. Suggestion can
often here be very enective.

With many (*lderly people, deep faith in a psyehicr
healer ofh^n enables the lathT to give relief whert^ the pro¬
fessional physician or psychiatrist has failed. At the right
hour the patient relaxes and opens his mind to the “ healing
thoughts ” of his healer; and, as knowh^dge of suggestion-
therapy might lead us to expect, he finds that his deprtrssion
lifts, his heada(?he disappears and that for a, time his mental
and nervous balance is restored.

In such eases there is the great advantage that distan(*e
do(‘s not interfere with the curative proe(*ss. Whedher or
not the healer bothers to think of his patient is obviously
of little importance. It is doubtful whetlu r he troubles his
head about his devotee once the lattcT is out of his sight.
The effect of the patient’s own autosuggevstion is sufficient.
It is to be renuunbered, however, that such autosuggestion
is likely to be ineffective without the [)ati(Md\s fuind being
rendered susceptible to suggestion by the he:d(‘r in person
during the lirst weeks of curative treatment, a ])oint which
Coue has repeatedly emphasised.

The same principle of suggestion hold good for radiesthe-
tie ” treatment via the medium of pictures painted by the
healiT, in which the patient exposes himself to tin* healing
rays of the painting.

Another method for securing results, sometinurs used by
the older schools of hypnotherapists, is for the latter to write
down the curative suggestions on a piece of paper, sign it,
and give* the patient “ the post-hypnotic suggestion that
should, e.g., the pain or insomnia return he has only to read
what has been written for the symptoms to disappear ”. ‘
This, of course, is merely a modernised version of the primi¬
tive witch-doctor’s presentation of ‘‘healing” charms, and
the medieval custom of healing through holy r(*li(*s and
amuh*ts provided by the priest together with his blessing.
Some modern clinics for the cure of dipsomania provide
treatment which is analogous in principh*.

('iiddon, K., ifypnofris : Its Meanh^g and Pravtivv, p. 12a.

Thk Rkmkk of Pain

Thk Relief of Pain

'rii(*ni])(uli<* su^^cstion can play a supremely important
role in all(‘\'inting the patient’s distress, by the relief or
miiiyation of ])Hin or injury. This is not diflieult once
hypnosis has been induced ; even without hypnosis pain
can often be considerably relieved under the art of one skilled
in th(‘ use of su^^(*stion, and in a few (*ascs it may b(‘ alto-
gt'ther inhibited by such means.

The relief of pain through suggestion in such maladies as
sciatica, himhagr> and neuralgia is a common experiences
Thous nds hav(^ testified to th(‘ ability of “ psychic *' healers
In alleviate their pains by simply touching or stroking the
atfeet(‘d part with their hands. In hospitals on the continent,
the 1(‘rrible pains of pleurisy have been reported completely
banished by sugg(‘stion repeated at intervals. The banish-
im^nt by suggestion of psewksthetic sensations, often of ex-
treuK' painfulness, in “ phantom limbs ” after amputation
has been repeatedly carried out, and many hospital authorities
ar(‘ open to censure in that they do not attempt to employ
a psychotherapist even in the most severe eases of
pseudesthesia.

In the cast' of serious organic disease, suggestion can
do nothing to elTe(*t a cure if other methods are nt‘glected.
Many [)hysieians tt'ud to look down upon psychotherapy
for this r(?ason. Hut if it is recognised “ that we are not
curing tabes when we attempt to suggestively influence
the lancinating pains and the gastric crisis, then scarcely
anything can be obj('cted to such a therapeutic procedure."’'
For many years hvfinotism has been employed as a local
anaesthetic, as, for example, in the removal of boils or the
extraction of teeth. As in hysterical analgesia, local an^as
may be rendered totally insensitive to pain by hypnotic
sugg(*stion. More remarkable still arc the carrying out
of major operations while the patient is in a hypnotic tranct.
In this connection the name of James Esdaile stands pre¬
eminent. In 1845 Esdaile was appointed superintendent
of a government hospital in India for the express purpose
of introducing “ mesmerism ”, as hypnotism w^as then called,
into r(*gular hospital practice. This was before the intro-

* .Jolowicz, K., op. eit.

PaINLKSS OpF.HATION liMFORI*: Till-: AuVFMT of Clll.OJlOFOitM.

Drawing of another jiyreat tumour removed l)y Dr. James Ksduiie while
the patient lay une»onseious in hypnotic sleep.

(UepTodmed Jrani '‘*’The Introduction of Mesmerism into the Public Hospitals
of India,"' If'. Ketd d* ("o., 1850.)

224.

Thk Psyc}u>L()(;y of the OrcTu;r

ductiou of chloroform or ether. Esdaile, dealing with
the hiffhly suggestible Indians, was spei‘ta(‘ularly sueeessful.
He perfornH*d a tot.d of 261 surgi(‘al operations whih' his
patients remained uneonse/ious in hypnotic trance. To
illustrate the magnitude of Esdaile’s success here is a list
of his operations pcrfornuTl in the hosj)itals of ITooghly
and Calcutta.*' It is giYcn in full since su(‘h an amazing
doeum(*nt deserves to be perpetuatetl.

Amputation of thigh ... ... ... ... ... 2

leg. 1

arm ... . ... ... ... 2

breast; one 7, another 10 lbs. wc iglit ... 1

,, thumb ... ... ... ... ... 1

greattoe ... ... ... ... ... I

,, penis ... ... ... ... ...

,, 0112 testis ... ... ... ... ... .‘1

„ two testes ... ... ... ... ... 2

enlarged clitoris and nymphae ... ... 1

,, Scrotal tumours of all sizes, from 10 ll)s.

to 103 lbs. weight ... ... ... 200

Cancer of cheek extirpated ... ... ... ... 1

of eyeball extirpated ... ... ... ... 1

,, of scrotum extirpated ... ... ... ... 2

Cartilaginous tumours on the (‘ars removed ... ... 2

Cataracts operated on ... ... ... ... ... 3

End of bone in a compound fracture sawn off ... ... 1

End of thumb cut off ... ... ... ... ... 1

Great>toenailscut()ut by the roots ... ... ... ;>

Gum cut away ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Heels flayed ... ... ... ... ... ... 0

Hypertrophy of penis removed ... ... ... ... 3

Hypertrophy of prepuce removed ... ... ... 1

Lithotomy ... ... ... ... ... ... ]

Lithotrity ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Piles, suppurating, cut out ... ... ... ... 2

Prolapsus ani, the size of a child’s head, reduced in the

trance ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Strangulated hernia redmied in thc.‘ traijce ... ... 3

* Esdaile, J., The Introduction of Aleftmerisni into the PuIjUc Hospitals of
India, 185«, pp. 2«-27.

Thk Rkmkf ok Pain 225

Straightened eontraeted arms in the trance ... ... 3

Straightened contracted knees in the trance ... ... 3

Tumour in tlie groin removed (a fungoid undt‘sccnded

testis) ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

Tumour in the antrum maxillare r<‘mov<‘d ... ... 1

Tumour on l(‘g removed... ... ... ... ... 1

Totnl . 2r>l

In 1<S|.2 John Klliotson, the inventor of llu* stethoscope,
founded a hospital for th(‘ use of fiypnosis in surgical oj>er-
ations. I)(‘spite this and despite Ksdaile’s success in estah-
lishing that major opiTalions could lx* undertaken under
anaesthesia induced by hypnotic suggestion, the general
opprobium attached by th(‘ medical world of tlu* day to
the practice of nu'smerism resulted in his work being mainly
ignored and this although it had been attested by a
government commission. In all his 231 “ mesmeric ”

surgical ojMTations, ultimate morbility proved to b(‘ under
(> per cent of the cases -a very low (igure for those days,
Ksdaile noticed, too, that the wounds made by the knife
healed with less trouble. It seems curious and rather
horrifying that surgeons of the day did not leap to wel(‘ome
any idea which would help allevdatc the terrible* agonies
of the operating theatre, where patients not infriMjuently
died under the shock or had their minds dcTanged by the
tortures of the saws and scalpels.

The following is Esdaile’s own account of the amputation
of a scrotal tumour nearly seven feet in circumference : ’

“ S., apjed twenty-seven, e^uiie to the Native Hospital with an
immense sttrotal tumour as heavy as his whole body. He was mes¬
merised for the lirst lime on October 10th., 1840, then on the 11th.
and lath., on w^hieli latter day he was ready for operation. Tlie
operation w'as performed on the 14th. The tumour was ti(‘d up in a
sheet in w'hieh a rope was attaeluMl, and passed throiijrh a j)ulley
in the rafter. The eolis was dissected out, and the mattn‘ss then
hauled down to the end of the bed; his legs were held asunder, and
tlie pulley put in motion to siipfMirt tlie mass and devi^lop its iieek.
It was transfixed with the longest two-edged knife, w’hieh w^as found
to he too short, as I had to dig the haft in the mass to make the ])oint
appear below it and it was removed by two scmi-eircular incisions
right and left. Tlie flow of venous bhmd was prodigious, but soon

• ibid.

22C) The PsvcHtiLooY of the Occui/r

moderated under pressure of the hand; the vessels hein^ picked up
as fast as possible. The tumour, after half an hour, weighed KKi
pounds, and was as heavy as the man’s body. During tli<^ whole
i>|)eration, I was not sensible of a quiver of the flesh. The patient
made a ^ood recovery.”

Today the use of h\ j)notism as an anaesthetic in surgical
operations is rare. Its use is generally eonlined to patients
who possess a weak heart or when a geiKTal anaesth *tie
or the suspense attendant ujion an operation und(T a local
anaesthetic would l)(‘ dangerous. A niiniber of dcMitists
in England and Aineriea have spt‘(‘ialised in the hypnotic
teehniejue in lieu of elieniieal anaesthetics for lilling dental
cavities and extracting teeth. In America th(‘ tt^ndeney
is for such dentists to avoid the term hypnotisiu and to use
instead th(' l(\ss quest ion-l)(‘gging term psijchosoviaiic sleep.
Such dentists have to be able to assess whether each patient,
is susceptible to liypnosis in tlie first j)lae(‘ and tliey rcqK)rt
over ninety per C(;nt success with those on whom they
try it out. The British Dentiil Association, in (‘ontrast to
the Aincrican dental profession;* is favourable in its attitude
towards the use of hypnotism in dentistry though without
specifically encouraging it. Few dentists are trained in
hypnosis, and this factor prevents its employment becoming
more widespread.

Dentists who have continuously used hypnotic analgesia
are unanimous in their verdict that it is possible to stop
by suggestion the flow of saliva from the saliva glands in
th(^ mouth. With some patients they crlaim that the bleeding
can also be largely controlled. The cheeking by suggestion
of bleeding from wounds appears to be practised by the
shamans of Lapland as a therapeutic me^asure and by the
fakirs of India in their thaumaturgic displays. There is
considerable evidence that the natural processes pertaining
to the healing of wounds and broken bones can be (*onsid-
erably speeded up amongst primitive peoples by the use
of suggestion. There is nothing very surprising in this.
It is no more than the psychotherapist docs, for example,
in his treatment of tuberculosis by suggestion-therapy.
The process is an indirect one and is based on the fact that
the patient’s mental state can affect the course of the
disease either for better or for worse.

The Rei.ief of Pain

2‘27

Ksdaile first called attention to the quick healing of wounds
in operations performed under hypnotically induced anal¬
gesia, ; and also to the quick healing of wounds self-inflicted
by Arab pilgrims during ecstatic or autohypnotic states.
Chemically induced analgesia |)roduces a similar effect,
shock and inflammation being considerably diminished under
an anaesthetic in comparison to when the patient feels
the knife and the pain of the operation. Clearly there is
good ground for believing that suggestion could, in numbers
of cases, generally benefit physical injuries, and when it
is reported tliat a native* has received such treatment at
the liands of an African witch doctor there is no r(‘ason
to disbelieve the story after making due allowance for
the natural tendency to exaggeration.

WlK'ther wounds can be healed in days in place of several
w(*(‘ks is open to question. However, in view' of the effects
upon the v'asomotor system attainable through hypnotic
suggestion and thci know'ii phenomenon of atrophy in
functional paralysis, we cannot say dogmatically that a
reverse process is not possible, that the mind may not be
able to greatly speed up the natural curative processes.
Reports of instantaneous healing of wounds and broken
bones may be disregarded. No sucli (^ase has ever been
proved, and the sources of error and delusion are numerous.

Amongst those who go to “ psychic ” healers for relief
from pain must be many who suffer from neurotic aches
and pains with a psychological aetiology. Amongst hyster¬
ical individuals there are some wdio suffer from what is
known as topoalgia ; the patient feels a localised pain in
some part of his body for which no organic cause can be
found or where the distribution of the sensory nerves renders
an organic cause out of the question. Such pains are
easily cured by suggestion, but unless the underlying mental
conflict or source of nervous tension is discovered and dealt
with, relief is likely to be only temporary.

The relief of pain by psychological methods can often
be extended to cases in w^hich the patient suffers from a
painful and incurable disease. Fear and anxiety often
make a great contribution to the degree of pain experienced,
and suggestion can do much to diminish both. Many
stories have at one time or another come into circulation

228

Tin: Psvc’ii<)L(k;y of tiik Oocitlt

concerning th(‘ powtTs of jiriinilive nie(li(‘ine men and
occult licalers who, at the toucli of the hand ”, banish
the pain of tlie wounded or h vered travelltT and ^^ive him
the healin^^ oblivion of deep shn^p. To the uninitiated
such stories are either dislu^lievc'd or re^anhd as proof of
the transcendental power of the mind. There is no need
to fall back on either ('Xfilanalion. Tliat va<jfue and unsatis-
faedory w^f)rd su^^estion *' is a li rm which embraces
a number of things the psychiatrist do(\s not understand,
but the processes it reders to are recognisable by their eth'cts ;
and although some of th(‘S(‘ may be siir|)rising, dramatic
or (wen startling, tli(Te is iH»tliing in them which gives the
least snj)port to tlie cult of supernaturalism.

The ce)nquest of pain by sugge stie)n is one e>f mairs great
le)st opj)ortunitie‘s. llael tliis ce)mparativcly simple* know¬
ledge be‘en disee^vered ami utilise*d l)y the* me*dical profession
from its earliest days, as well it miglit, mankind would have
been spared mountains of siiHering ele)wn through the*
ages. It is a tragc'ely that its full pote'utialilie*s we‘re realised
only wnth the a(lve*nt of chloroform.

S YMPTC m AT 1 (' C upks hv S re ; e ; j: s 7Te > n

There are many diseases the c*ourse of whi(*h cannot be*
seriously checked by any known means. Witli some* of
these hypnotic suggestion can oiten be* of in(*stiinabte
service by removing the overt symptoms or by inducing a
compciisativo action. The* ‘‘ psychic ” healer, the* Lourdes
grotto and the })rimitive shaman have, in thc! past, received
enormous kudo,s for these* oste nsibly miraculous “ cures ”
of incurable disease. Not only do the wdtne*sse*s of the
cure; ve)e*iferous)y aerclaim it, generally with wild exagger¬
ations, fremi the housetops, but the* patient hims(*lf is fre*-
qucntly the loudest in his asseverations of miracle*s per-
form(;(l—even the)Ugh he may subsc*fiuent,ly lose the benefits
of the “ cure; ”, as he usually does unless the suggestive
dose is repeated.

Symptomatic cur(*s of astonishing etrcctiveness have bec‘n
recorded in the clinic. For cxamjile Moll m(*ntions the
successful cessation of the staggering gait in locomotor

Symptomatic Cckks by Suookstiox

229

ataxy by hypnotic suggestion.’ Such an achievement by
a “ psychic ” liealer would be acclaimed as proof positive
of his supernatural power to heal otherwise^ incurable mal¬
adies ; and many would believ(^ him.

Anoth(T type of cure in wJiicli the “ psychi(‘ ’’ healer is
able to claim resounding suec(^ss, is in thos(j cases where
th(‘ overt syitrptmus of a disease have jiersistcd as a psyctho-
logical habit long aft<T the organic cause has been banished.*
Hypnotic sugg(‘stion is naturally elfeetive in such instances.

Anotlua* method of achieving the mira(‘l(‘ cure is to induce
by suggestion, illusions or vveu hallucinations of well¬
being in the mind of the jiatient. I Undoubtedly these form
a ve ry large number out of the* total e>r j>urporteel “ psychic ”
cures. An intere'sting and enlightcFung e'linieal example!
of such a “ e*ure " is giveai by Rossette* :

“ As nritliiT I nor any of my eolleuigucs or associat.(‘s liad siicct*(*cic(i
in curiii!' ))ost(‘nee])haliti<* narkiiisouian piilionts. and in a niindxT (»f
(!iise*s iiad faileMi even to alleviate thvir sidlVrin^, 1 availed myse lf of
an <;p[><»rtunity to witnerss an alle^^e'el * cure ' of siicli patients hy
tresti(»n, in a e'ertain clinic. After the su<racstion-t rcatmont had Been
administered, I spoke to sewne of the* patients. They weTc miserable
vietiins of the dread dise^ase, rigicl, with abnormal involuntary
movements. They Jiad btaui ree^dviiu^ tliis tn‘atm(‘nl for tixmtlis,
some tliern, for a ye'ar or more, and all of tlu*m, acc‘ordinc to their
own test imony, were enn-d ? ATiionjT tliern T was esp{‘eia.lly iinjiressed
by onr*. Ife was so rigid tJiat lie eonid iiardly fii'opel liimstdf with
the short, iii(a'<*asingly rapid. Parkinsonian gait. His right iiaiid shook
violently, his body swayral from side to sidt* iiieessantlv, his inaid
moved eontinually iij) and dmvn ami from side to side, liis month
was open and saliva drihhlcd from it. Ifis speech was f)f ttu' classical
explosive type, seanniiig and wdth abrupt p.inses. And lie, too, w;is
eiir<‘d ! 1 was as certain of the yioor fellow's sincerity as I am tJiat

1 luivc not seen many posteiicephalitie suffert‘rs more pitiatile.” "

Th(* above is an extreme example, and one iiievitaVdy
wonders to what (*xt(‘nt the* hallucination of well-being
iilhviatcd the snlfering of the patients. In less serious
eases, there can be no donbf of the contribution to the
hapj)iness of the sufferer by such methods, for the allevi¬
ation of anxiety is always highly lienetieial to the patient.
As an illustration of this fact I)rs. F. VV. Freeman and J.

‘ Moll, A., /////mo//.s7w, p. iJil.

* .lolowiez ami I fever, op. eit., p. 218.

• Uosett, . 1 ., The Mechanism of Thonuht. Jmaffery ami nalluclnation,

p. 214., N.V. lima.

230

The PsYrH()E(>(;v op the Ocrri/r

Watts of George Wasliiiigtoii Universily liave perfonned
prefrontal lobotoniy—a surgical operation on the brain
which frees the patient from fear and anxiety—on patients
suffering from chronic disease^ accompanied by great phy¬
sical pain. Although the course of the disease remains
unaflected by the o})eration and the pain is not lessened,
the patients, freed of anxietj' and fear, find their sulTering
bearable, even to the point of making liglit of them. Pati¬
ents who have had their worry and anxiety removed by
metliods of suggestion often ex})erienee the beneficent
illusion that their disease is ‘‘ getting better ”. Not unex¬
pectedly, if such suggestion is carried out by an occult or
thauniaturgie healer the patient will credit their “ improve¬
ment ” to the ]att( r's supernatural powers.

GoNC’LrSTON

Belief in thc‘ occult or divine powers of ])syehie '' ht altTs.
holy wells, witches, Christian Seienee lu^alers, charms or
amulets is widespn^ad. Such V)eli(‘fs have arisca) ami bee!\
perpetuated through ignorance of th(‘ psyc'hologieal prin¬
ciples involved. Mankind, universally prone to niystieisin,
has, in the realm of mcfital la-aling, an overflowing abun¬
dance of idienonuaia of an apparently niira(‘ulous nature.
The psychological cure of a man functionally blind for
years inevitably fills even the most intelligent but uninldrnu'd
spectator with awe and a sense of unecTlainty, parti<*ularly
if the eur(‘ takes ])laee in such an atmosphere as is geiuTally
attendaiit upon gatherings of a religious or ( sotcTie nature.

Among primitive and suggestil)I(‘ |)eoples suggestion
can eff(‘et tlie most dramatic recoveries. In modern civilised
societies, however, education and other factors liavt' largely
mitigated the effects which waTc once attainable* solely
by the use e)f suggestie)n, anel in moele rn psye hialrie e*linics
the eiriployme*nt e)f suggestie>n therapy is e)n the wane;
surer teehnirpus of me*ntal healing have* graelually replaf‘(*ei
the uncertainties inh(Te*nt in hypnotism and e)ther forms
of direct suggestion, althougJi eiire*ct suggestie)n still has an
important role to play.

From earliest times the* effects of suggestion and ante)-

C'ONCi.USrON

‘281

suggestion have |)rovid(‘d th(* ignorant with a host of phono
niena whieh an* easily attributed to the influenee of trans
<*endental forces. And nowhere is this more* true than in
the sphere of psyeliotlK-rapeutie liealing. Therapeutic
sugg(‘stion ifi its niultiph* guises forms the l)asis of belief in
sup{‘rnatural healing. The miracle liealer. the primitive
medicine man or sliaman. the* psy(*hie healer, tlie super¬
visors and a1t(‘nda]its at holy wells and springs, \jse the
principle* of suggestie)n te> e)btain tlieir eflee'ts ; but this
fact is alme)st invariably misappre‘herule‘d hy both h(*al(T
and sulTerer, both e»r whom attribute* tlie* obs(*rve"d results
to the operation of supernatural powers. Suggestion can
(*ure temporarily and some*lime‘s permanently -most phys-
i(‘al eliseases and disorders with a j^syehologieal origin ;
the paralysed hysteric is known in ineKfern tiines to have
been e*ured instantaneously a genuine* miraeU* te) niaiiy
wlio kne)wn Jiothing of meelie*al psychology.

In the ease of psychosomatic cures {cxe*(*lle*ntly tyj)iiied
by tin* village wart-eharnier), the be'lief in the supernatural
is s\islaine*d by the* tact that fenv sulT(*rers fro\n psycho¬
genic ailments realise that th(*ir malaely is psyehe)logieal
in origin. Most pe*ople tend to belit've that any })hysi(‘al
ailm(*i:t is primarily a symptom of physical dise*ase or dis-
orele*r. Hence, when such diseuMlers are eurc*el by j)syeho-
logical or nu*ntal '' n\ethexls e»f treatm(*ul, the cure is looked
upon as an example of the mystical or supernatural power
of “ mind over matter." Such be‘lie*fs appeal to the ir¬
rational (*lem(*nt in man's nature and have behind them
the spurious sanction of thousands of years of similar beliefs.

In all types of disease, injury and iU-health there can
be traced mental factors whieh ext*rt a delinitc and often
vital influence, for good or evil, upo?i the })atient's condi¬
tion. Sometimes the patient’s physical disorders arc purely
])sy(*h()logieal in origin and are directly amenable to (*ure
I>y suggestion. In other types of dis(*ase, psychological
factors play an important though secondary role, and here
again psyehotherapeutie suggestion may vitally influence
the eoiirsi* of the disease. In the cjise of incurable dis¬
eases suggestion may give rise to illusions of healing by
the banishment j[)r alleviation of pain, the removal of overt
symptoms, by inducing compensative reactions or simply

2.S2 Thk PsY('noh(>(;Y ok tiik ()(rri/r

by a fixed belief in llie patienr.s mind that h(‘ is

cured ! All these cures and alleviations of sutl’erin^ both
real and illiisorv- an* oj)(‘n to supernatural interpretation
by i^morant or uninformed people.

Su^^esti(»n can als<j j)rovid(‘ tlie sulTen r witli the t(*m-
])orarv (h liision or ext ii halliu'inat ion (liat lu* is cured -
and this is })robabI\ the ^n*atest factor in the <r(‘n(‘sis of
tales eoiiecrnin^^ supcTuatural healing. Su;^^^fest ion can
banish anxiety, \v<a‘rv and fear and replace* it with clu^r-
fulncss af:d optitnism thenby iiuTeasiniv the patient's
reserve's of eiK'roy and oft(‘n l)rinjTin^- alnnit n'lnarkable*
improvements in a very short spae'e* of time*. This aj^ain
is often atlrihnteel to tlie* snp< rnatn?’al jxnve rs of the* lieale r.

Suaide'stion anel aulosn^-^estitni have* playe*ei a very im-
])ortanl re')le in (he- hisle>r\ of mirae'le* enn*s. \e*l this is
by n<» means the whole* slory. Charlatarrs and trie*kste*?'s
ha\c aeleled their full <nje*ta to the* l)<‘lier in sup rnalural
he‘aiin^^ while srli-ele'ception and wishi'ul Ihinkini: have
jM'rhaps inaeli e'\ v n large r (*ontribn1 ie)ns.

I’aie's of ilu‘ instantaiK’OUs cure* of l>re>k(‘ii l)on(*s anel
ine*urat)le* disease* are* mjm«*rons anel fre*sh e*xa!nple‘s arrive*
i'V(*ry memtli. pariieiilarly fre)m tlie* I’nite/ei State*s \vhe*re
eve-ry ele*eaele proelue*es a ne w e*re»p of relij^nons culls with
faith liealin;^ as the* ce ntral theme* ; in la^f e)n(‘ e*ase‘ has
sueli a repeirt been seient illegally at test eel. In all such
stories tlie lirst thine t<» sus|)('e*t is the valieiity of the initial
diaenosis. In instane*es where* a [)erson claims te» liave*
been < nre*el of an inenrable* elisease* anel ne) lonjjje'r e xhibits
the* sympleims pertaining to that disease*. deK*nmentary
(*vide*nee* of the* oriejual elia^nosis lias m‘ve*r been forih-
eomine. Anel in eases wh<‘re* the* eirieiual dia^riosis lias
lice*!! \ e‘rifi<*d as e*orre*(*t, the* snbseeiueni cure* is ^e’lie-rally
feimid te> be* based ein delnsiein eir elelibe*rate eU‘eeptioii,
unless llie* e nre is a sympiomatie erne* einly. Proof of an
instantaneeius e*nr(* of an iricurable distase eir jihysieal
injury must necessarily be sujiported by irrefutable* evi-
deiie*(‘ of a (*ompete*nt diagnosis before the “ cure* ”, toge‘ther
with a doctor’s eeTtitieate slating that th(‘ patient no longer
exhibits the* disease or injury in qu(*stion. It must, more¬
over, be established that the patient’s recovery took place

roNiLrsiox

23.^

within a lime limit which n^iders all possibility of a cure
through the natural processes of healing out of tlui c|U(‘Stion.

J)espite all these precautions faulty diagnoses arc still
mad(‘ by general practitioners and nowhere is this more
likely than in the ease of psyehogc iiie ailments. A broken
arm or leg has often been known to have result(‘d in func¬
tional j)aralysis or topoalgie pains long after the bone has
s(*t. T(» all int(‘nts and purposes the pati('nt remains in¬

capacitated l)y Iiis original injury, whereas in fact his con¬
tinued invalidism is a hysterical syndrome*. The doctor
may fail to realise this and omit to caW in a psychiatrist
wlio would easily cure the patient. It may chance that
the patient is treated by a jmehie " lualer, visits Lourdes,
or attends a t’hristian S(*i(‘ntist meeting af\d lo, the miracle
is ])erform(‘d ; tlie “broken limb” that the* doetor could
not eun* is heahsl at a touch or within the course of a few
days. Such instance's are aelmitte*elly rare*, l)ut it is t!iis
type e>r “cure*' wliie'h lends a spe‘cie)us air e)f validity to
tile lumelveels of other tales eone'erning the “ psyediie ”
liealing e»f broke'ii bejiu's anel ineairable elise'ase', whie*h have
little* e)r no fe)unelatie)n bcyonel mt'rc he'arsay.

It is well kne)wn that hysterical maladie*s are e)ftcn irnit-
ativ(* anel many a me(lie*al prae*titie)neT has hael experiences
of diagne)sing a eliscase whie*h has e ve'ntually pre)ve*el to
be merely a fune'tional elise)reler. In tlie i)ast, when tlie
nature e)f funetional elisemle'rs was not unelerste)eKl, the
eloe'teir was eiften liclple*ss te> elfee’t a cure, whe*reas the
e|uae*k thaumaturgie* lu^aler e)fteii succeeeU'el in bringing
abe»ut a cure by simple* siigge*stion. In many parts of the
world tlie same situatiein probably still aris(\s freim time
to time, de)ubtle*ss \o the jeiyous elation of tlie faitliful and
tlie ceaisternation of many of the nu'die'al ])rofessie)n.

(liapter Thi rtecn

MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE AND ECSTASY

KNoiiMoi'S AMiu N'T of literature has been written
concerning so-called iiiysti(‘al ” exp(Tiene(‘s alid states
of ecstasy. GeiKTally, these unusual j)hases of (*(>nsi*ioiis-
ness have possessed a religious signitieanee to th(»s(‘ who
have exp(‘rieneed thenu ranging from a belief in dir(*<*t
peTsonal union with (iod, the Universe or Ke\*ility ”,
to the crude howling exaltatie)ns of hysteTo-epiltpsy ifi-
dueed among cerlain s(*els and indivieluals in primitive*
seK'ieties.

The ps)'chologist is uneler no such illusions as to I he
real nature* e>f mystical experie*nee and (*estasy. and it may
come as something of a s]ie)ek to many pe*ople who leave*
believed in the religious signitie*aiu*<‘ of sueli sid)je*(*tive
states, te) le*arn that the*y may be* bre)ught about by a vane‘ty
of cause's whe)se* origin, judge*el by any crite rion, is f/ir re¬
moved from the divine*.

The pheiH)me*na known as ecstasy and mystical e*xpe*rie*nce
are* attributable te> a numb(*r of different causes. Very
freejuently they possess a hysterical or pathe)le)giea.l aeti-
They may also be induced by autophy})noti<* |)rae-
tise^s e>r by tlie use of ce rtain drugs, amongst the most con-
spie'ueuis e)f whie h is Indian he*mp. The Indians of Me*xico
achi(*ve anale)gous stales of consciousness through ololwiqiii
intoxie*atie)n. Ololuie^ui is a deu’iv^ativc f)f a solamu*ee>us
plant allied to belladonna, or dt'aclly-nightshade the
main component of witches’ brews in the Middle Ages.

The use of Indian hemp as a narcotic is widespre*ad.

Mystk’ai. Kxpkkiknck and Ecstasy *J35

Known as hashish in Arabir-sja^akinj^ fountrics, hhang or
ganja in India and marijuana in Mc^xico, hemp rivals opium
in its ability to create an artitieial world of escape from
the r(*alities of (xistenee. As is well known, continued
heavy use of both narcoti(*s has often led to iiuairable
insainty. Hemp has bee!\ used, as far as we can tell, for
nearly .•i,0()() y(*ars; Herodotus mentions its nsc^ by Ilu‘
Scythians in tin* fifth century H.C. The druj^ is still
something of a mystery, how(‘V(r, for its efl’e(‘ts on human
beings vary considerably, particularly in its psychologi(*a{
consecjucnces. Its effects on th(‘ individual’s na ntal facul-
ti<‘s s(*(‘nis largely to d(‘]>(‘nd on llu* psychological constit>
ution of the subject. With ccTtain individuals it may
result in (‘U})hon(* lialhicinations. richly variegated sensoiy
illusions or brilliant, easily niruanbercd dreams. The
fnir/ied (‘cstasies attaim-d by certain dervish cults arc*
imdoubtedly (connected with lh(‘ eating of hashish. The*
elervishes themselves regard hashish as an aid to the induc¬
tion of (‘(‘Static visions of supernatural or mystical import.

The most intere'sting cas(‘s of ('(*stasy and mysti(*al exju'ri-
(‘uee are tliose which arc the product of hysteria or ps\'(‘has-
thenia and which have no coniu'ction with tlu‘ taking of
drugs. Th(*sc states of consciousness are' ofte'U accomj)anicd
by a subjective s(‘nsatie>n e>f ertrnne euphoria, or feeling e)f
bliss, to a de‘gr(‘C which is normally unattainable* by the
average indivielual whe)sc mind is adapte‘el to the* exigencies
of practical existence. It is this co?)iponenl of euphoria
which so eleeply impresses the mystic and whie*h colours
not only his tlioughts and illusions at the* time of his i‘\pcri-
en(‘es, but also liis memory of the*m afterwards.

With many ecstatics visual hallucinalie)ns are* experi¬
enced which are* called visions.” More freepu ni, pe rhaps,
are* auditory lialhicinations, but hallucinatie)ns are* by no
means an invariable concomitant, and with some type^s e)f
ecstasy are totally lacking.

Apart from true j)sychos(*s, ecstasy can usually be put
down to hysteria or else* to eaus(*s pathological in eharaet(‘r
where the* })hysiologieal stniedure of the lirain is aneet(*ei :
as, for example, in gemeral paralysis of the insane, which
is oefcasionally accompanied by extreme (*uphoria or hab-
romania. Ilabromanuu in combination with tlie delusions

The Psyciiology ov the Ocxri.T

experionmi by the syphilitic, may result in a state analogous
to genuine ‘‘ mystical experience

It is the hall-mark of the mystic that ho inv(‘sts certain
abnormal psychological states with an objectivity equal
to or transcending the objectivity of his experience in the
ordinary everyday world. This is the essence of all true
mysticism. The mystic, knowing notliing of modern
psychiatry, intcrjmts his abnormal j)sychological experi¬
ences as a reve lation of ‘‘ ultimate reality whereas in
fact they art* nothing more than extremes of mental and
emotional complexes which art* beyond the rangt* of tht*
average man.

For example, mt)sl people art* actjuainictl with a feeling
of happiness and optimism at times, in which the wholt*
world is seen in a rt)scate glow ; oiie feels that one is part
t)f nature and that nature itst‘lf is transformttl init) stiine-
thing mort* vital, reflecting back, as it wt*re. tlit* jt>yousnt*ss
within. Similarly, when one feels pessimistit* and ileprt*ssetU
the wholt* environment a])pears bitak and without meardng.
purposeless. In the ordinary way the lunnan mt‘ntal
mee}ianis]n is fairly wt*!! adjusted to t)j)erate within the
range of these two t)ppt)sit(‘s, without bt*ing incapacitated
for etreetive action in the daily round. In some ty|H*s of
insanity such feelings of extreme ecstasy r(*nder the j)aticnt
incapable of attending <*ven to the* simplest of his needs.
Such states may also be brought about by disease in which
th<‘ brain becomes afleeted.

The true mystic, on the otluT hand, is oftcji einineiitly
sane. But whether through accident or design, he is on
occasion able* to aeliieve a state of e(‘stasy in which his
normal faculty for oj)timisrn and happiness reaeh(‘s ab¬
normal lieights. As with some types of ii^sanity this may
b(‘ simultaneously accompanied by delusions of deperson¬
alisation {acen€sthima\ identilieation with the cosmos, or
oinniseienee {sophorrumia); it is nearly always accompanied
by delusions of one sort of another. With one such delusion,
also seen in the psychosis known as somatopsychic paranoia,
the patient experieiures the sensation of having no body.
The mystic’s ecstasy is sometimes accompanied by beatific
hallucinations. Oblivion to the immediate environment
frequently occurs, although, this depends largely on the

MySTK’AI. KxrKKlKKeK AND Eistasv

ty|H‘ of expcTi(‘n(‘(‘ involved and, conooinilantly, on the eausal
factors involved in its manifestation.

Ev(Ty sirif^le aspect of th(‘ so-eahed mystical cx]>ericnee
is to be found in insane asylums or n\ental homes. When
sane })(‘opl(‘ experit'iiee these* mental stales, some d(*^re(^ of
[)sye]iasthenia or hysteri(*al dissociation is probably present.
It is alike llie error of the sane anel the* elelnsion e)f the
insane, to supj)e)se‘ that tlu*se anomalous stales e>f e*onscious-
ness possess any nie>re si<riiifjeane*e* than edhe'r extreme
types of mental (*xperiene‘e.

'riie* Indian e*nlts e)f yo^a attain to blissful aiiei iilusion-
satiirateel slates by spe‘e*ial mental training, anel have
founde‘(| upon the*ni imjmssive* systems e>f metaphysieal
j)hilosnpIiy whose teae'hin^ hee*ome*s [)art e>i* the indiA'iduals
eaitlook ajiel is n lle-ete'd iji the*ir ee‘statie* stat(‘s. This type
e)r ecstasy is j)re»bably the* hi^lie*sl fe)rm attainable*. Amongst
all re‘li<:,ne)ns we line! this pure and e neddin^tr type e>f j)syeh()-
lo^ie*al e*\}K‘rienc<‘, whie‘b le‘av(‘s the subject with a sense
of joy and j)ur])e)S(‘ and wb.ie*b may lK*e‘e)me‘ the e*e‘ntral pivot
of his whedc lile.

Hut any and eNe ry <d)je*el of lon^in^ or elesire. no matter
hew ^rot(*se|iu‘, trivial, <d)se*e‘ne nr [HTverse, may also be*
e*e)me' the obje e*t of eu*stasy ; the* ele*gre*e e>f e‘uphe)ria attaincel
may l)e‘ tlie* same whe ther the obje'ct e)f e*e*stasy is perverse*
or cne>ldin^. The true* mystie*al e*xpeTicnce may be ee»n-
sidereel te) liave be‘e*n e\pcrie*ne*e*el when the euphe)rie* state
is allie^el te) the hij^lu'st nie*ntal anel intedle'ctual elevele)pment,
e)r with hi^h religious tli(*mes. Siiedi e*xperienees may last,
arnoni^st the sane*, fre>m a few sere)nels te) se'veTal hours:
they stanel no e'e)mparison with the e‘e*stasy e)f primitive
pe'oples, whe)se* le)vv intedlectual }>e)we‘rs prevent their at¬
taining te) what may uneie>ubte*elly be the rie*hest e)f all
me*ntal e'Xf)e‘rie‘neH*s, surpassinjT anythin" else kne)wn.

All types of mystic spe^ak e)f the rapturous bliss e)f tiieir
e'xpe'rie ncH S. To the re‘ligie>us mine!, Ihe^ ieleas e)f bliss anel
Heaven, e)r bliss anel (Je)el, pe)sse*ss a stroiif^ synonymity.
The* predominating scnsatie)n e)f euphe)ria, whiedi leavers
such an overwhedming impre*ss on the mind e)f the subject
both during and after his expe!riciice, e)fte*n leaves him in
ne) doubt that he has in fact had a dire.*et perse)nal experienoei
of God himself.

ThK PSYCIIOlAUiY OF TIIK OcCULT

Amongst primitive pcoph^s ecstasy becomes simply the
production of (‘uphoric liallueinations by any means in their
power ; the Rifai dervishes provide a ^ood exam[)l(;. IJeat-
ing drums, blowing on trumpets, frenzied dancing and
chanting, convulsive movements, fasting, self-eastigation,
liowling and slirieking, total sexual abstinence all these
t\rc used separately or in (‘onjunetion to produce th(! de-
si r(*d effect.

Tlic‘ e(‘static (‘Xj)erienees of many individuals have con¬
sisted of euphoric* hallucinations in which scenes of brutal
sadism and perverse sexual orgies predominate ; hen* may
1>(‘ most (‘learly seen the coinnum relationship between
eiJ})horic expcri(‘nees and sexual disturbances. In the
Middle Ages some* of tiu* Saints had hallucinations which
look this form—visions whose real nature was hidd(*n from
tlu*m by being represei\ted to their (‘onseiousness under
the guise* of the wickedne ss and the tortures of the damned
in hell, or a pre-view' of the Day of Judgment. The* medieval
saint might take the view^ that his erotic hallucinations,
were but teTni)tations of the devil ; but psychologically
th(‘re is no difr(*rence b(*tween his (‘xpcTienees arid those of
th(* mcdicival witch who Ix^lieved h(*rself to be a friend of the
devil and frankly enjoyed her hallucinatory walpurgis
where her partner in sin was often the d(‘vil himself.

Where sensory liallueinations occur, the <*cstatic experi¬
ence is usually on a sim])ler and more primitive level than
in those euphoric states where there arc no such hallucin¬
ations. In hysteria and mild jisychosis, hallucinatory
visions and voices an^ seldom accompanied by euphoria,
and the subject therefore lacks that irresistible desire to
repeat them which the true euphoric state induces in those
who have once exp(*ri(*nced it.

Many people still b(*licve that great intuitive truths can
be apjirehended in these <*cstatie states. This Ixdief is
merely part of the delusion involved in the state of ecstasy
its(‘lf; it is not surprising that ecstatic states have played a
large part in all religions, for they give a degree of illusory
corroboration to tlu* universal religious teaching that man
can have personal communion with the Godhead.

Unfortunately, most of the individuals who experience
the mystical ecstatic state arc to be found among the inhabi-

Mystk’ai. Expkriknc'h and Ecstasy

231 >

tJiDts of insane^ asylums, particularly among some types of
sehi/xiphrenia. These irtclividuals fr(*(ju(*ntly ex})erience
feelings of overwhelming bliss whi(‘h, as with tlu^ true mystic,
is aceompani(‘d by an all-pervading sense of charness of
pereepthm. Many saints and martyrs have \mdoubtetlly
prese nted schizoid characte ristics. Oddly eTiough, psyche)tic
ecstasy is ne)t infre^ejuently founel to be associated witfi
IVelings of fear and sus{)icion.

Hiis e)veTwhelming dehisie)n e>f ck‘arne*ss of perce])tie)n,
se) eharaeterislie of sehizoplirenie* ecstasy, give s the mystical
e^xpe rieme'e its deeaptive^ aj>))i‘arane‘e^ of genuine^ e)bji‘elivily ;
it is really an infantile regr<\ssie)n, althongli nothing will cvct
ce)nvine*e- the subjee*! e)f the‘ truth e)f this. Sehize)phreiucs
may also experience* symbe>lie‘ hallue*inations which have
fe)r them a epiality of the* intensest signifie*anee, and this
again is a fairly fre epient eharae‘teristie- e)f mystical experience.
It is not surj)rising, therefe)re*, that the)se who have t*x-
peTienecd, are subjex't to, or can by se)me me‘thoel induce,
the so-called mystie*al (‘X[)erience in any of its varie)usforms,
are* cemvinced of tlie* e)bjectivity of their (*xperiencc ; their
interpretatie)!! of it is simple and dire‘ct.

Yet, delusions of self-ielentilication with (Je)el, convictions
e)f omnipe>tence and e3mniscience, a sense of the uniejueness of
the*ir “ revelations ”, sensations of ove^rwhelming grandeur
- all these are familiar te) the student of abnormal psychology
in his studies of schizophrenia, paranoia, and manic-depres¬
sive psychosis. In the lives of many types of oriental
mystic we (*an set* how' these characteristics of psychosis may
be gradually induced in men of ccTtain dispositions by the
force of their b(‘licfs. In catatonic schizophrenia wx' find a
parallel to the immobile contemplator of the: Orient who has
withdrawn himself from the outside wx)rld. Hebej)hrenia
sometimes includes a conviction of identification wnth the
cosmos.

With some typ(‘s of psychasthenic ' patient sensations of
unreality and depc'rsonalisation are a common enough pheno¬
menon. Such a patient has a constant feeling of unreality
about things, and although he recognises liis usual surround-

‘ Psychastlienia ; a mental disorder characterised by phobias, compul¬
sions, obsessions, doubts, inadequacy, unreality, etc.

1240

This Psycik)ixk;y of tfik Occ ui/r

ings tlioy serni strang(‘ to him as if seeing them for the lirst
time.

Any or all of the above-mentioned variabh* factors of
psychosis and psyeliasthenia may play a part in mystical
“ilhiniinatioir' tlie sense of clarity of perception, tlu^ feeling
of intense significance, the d(‘hision of the imi(picness of the
experience, feelings of oinniseienee, dt^personalisation, un¬
reality, identifications with the Divine or the Tosnios, and
above all th(^ overwlulming euphoria which makes some of
the insane the most blissfully happy [)eoi)le on ('arth. The
true mystic, too, is often a supremely hajipy jierson, having
his whole life lit u}> l>y the subjective beauty of his occasional
euphoric states of eonseiousness.

Po(‘ls, artists and intellectuals down through the ages
have known tliis vivifying expericaiee. In an often (juoted
passage* from a letter to a friend, Ti'iinyson gives ns his
impression (,'f his own mystical experience :

" A kind of wakin*^ trance I have iViajiK ntly had, quit** from iny
1)oyliood, when 1 tiavc been all iilon<‘. 1'liis lias ^(‘ncrally come
n[>on me throu^'ii rcfK*aliii^f iny own nanu* two or lJirc(‘ fimf‘s to
myself silently, till all at once, as it w'ere out of tht‘ int<*nsity of tlie
eons(*iousness of individuality, the individuality itself stsaned t(»
dissolve and fiide aw^ay into boundless beiu^ ; and tixis is not a con¬
fused state but the clearest . . . surest . . . w^eirdest, uthTly beyond
w'onls, where death was an almost laughable impossibility, Ihe loss
of ]j:*rsouality (if so it w'ere) seemiiijjj no <-xtiiietion hut the oidy
true life/’

In psychological tiTins this experience might be described
as a temporary state of marked psyeliasthenia, (diaraeteriscd
by subjective fe(*lings of depersonalisation and delusions of
omniseieiKH' with atreompanying euphoria. Tennyson’s ac¬
count of his experience was undoubtedly conditioned by his
reading of tint literature of Indian mysticism and its specious
offspring, Theosophy, in which he was known to be deeply
interested.

Mystical experiences of all kinds have played an enormously
important role in history. All the great founders of religions
have been mystics. The strong delusory sense of revelation
which the mystics experience at the time of the ecstasy often
gives them a sense of historic mission ; the auditory and
visual hallucinations of Joan of Arc provide an excellent

Mystk’ai. Exi»kriknc‘k anh Ecstasy

t>Vl

<‘as(^ in point. The mystical visionary is nsimlly ij^m()rc‘(l or
laughed at by the world in ^(ciicral. Occasionally, by aii
accid(‘nt of history, his delusions find thcms(*lv’^cs in carious
harmony witli tlic needs and trends of the tinus, and he
becomes the leader of "ri^at national or religions uprisings.

“ Mysti(*al illuminatio)i ” is a. t(‘rm oft(*ri used in lien of
mystical cx[)(Ticnee, to (haiotc a single ( vent in the life of
th(‘ individual which brin^i^s about a change in his wlioh*
outlook and beliefs. It often takes tlu^ form of a visual or
auditory hallueiriation unae(*ompani(‘d by any subject i\(‘
s<‘nsalion of euphoria.

The vision '' of St. Paul provad(‘s an exec lleni example
of a hysterical hallucination with a religious llK ine : the
psy(*hiatrie t( rin votwersion sipulrome takes on here* a peculiar
siyniheanee. As Saul. tJie libcTally (‘dueated .lewish citizen
of the Homan city of Tarsus, he had Ixteome a l(*aderamon^
the Pharis(*(‘S. the strict, dogmatic and fanatical followers
of the ancient Jewisl* Law, His rise as .a youn^ man to a
position of resp(‘et and authority would naturally irratify a
domineering and ambitious nature*; in conscxiiuMiee* he
sternly repressed tlu' more humane' side* of his ehara(*ter and
for/^ot the lessons of the* wider eulturi' of Rome. Doubts
and scruples which would have interfered with his amhituui
he shut out from his consciousness, hidiiif^ them from himst lf
and otlu'rs by ever more brutal acts of fanaticism. Tht'
ref>r(‘ssed ideas and dcsins of the ^(uitler side of his nature
lay dormant,, forbidchai ttu* cleansing scrutiny of conscious
introspection. They formed a growing and incT(‘asin^ly
pow(Tful ^uilt-complcx re|)r('ssed and (‘inotionally super¬
charged whi(*h was subsecpiently to become tin* basis for
severe hysU'ria leading to hallucination, functional Vdindness,
change* of pc'rsonality and a recurring hysterical aihiction
coTU’crning whose* precise nature we remain uncertain.

The subconscious conflict in Saul’s mind suddenly burst
for a brief moment into consciousness under the impact of
a hyst(Tical crisis. The auditory hallucination which accom¬
panied it was the summation of his own repressed conscience,
he heard the voice of the crucified Nazareuc crying, “ Saul,
Saul, why do you persecute me ? ” This was followed by
functional blindness—the organs of sight being unaffected

242

Thk Psychology of the Occult

in any physiological sense, though the subject is unable to
bring wluit he sees into consciousjuss and in consequence
believes himself to b(' totally blind. P'unctional or hysterical
blindness can always b(‘ cured by suggestion or by other
psy(*hological means such as the resolution of mental stress.
In PauKs case both the resolution of m(‘ntal stress and the
healing suggestion wctc conveyed in tiu* words of Ananias,
and his sight was restored.

Saul, or Paul as lie now called himself, was now a changed
man. A hysterical change of personality, not uncommon
in psychological literature, almost, certainly occurred in
PauTs case. The brutal, fanatical, intoIiTant sid(‘ of his
nature' was replaced by the other gentler sid(' whi(*h had long
remaiiH'd repn'ssed. Hut he theriaftcr sulVered from a
graAT* affliction ”, of which he a[)])ears to have b(‘(*n
ashamed. It was probably a hysteri(*al disorder of some
kind, either recurrent hystero-epileptoid crises, a chronic
nervous tic, or hyste rical stammering.

A further alternative and one that would explain his
reticence on the subject is that he rc'VTTted for short p(Tiods
to his original Saul pe rsonality which had, on th(‘ enicrgeiK'c
of the nobler and gentler Paul, been more or k'ss repressed
ever since. Hysterical changes of this riatun' are often
accompanied by subsccpient animsia. Such reversions to
his former personality, even for brief pc'riods of a few minutijs,
must have been exceptionally distressing both to Paul and
to his friends, particularly thosi' friends who were ignorant
or uneducated, for they would attribute such reversions to
“ possession ” by an evil sjiirit when they heard their leader
inveighing against the followers of Jesus with all his old fury.

The phenomena known as mystical experience and mystical
illumination arc of great interest from the point of vi(*w of
the psychologist. To the mystic, howev(‘r, the psychiatric
explanation of his experiiaices is anathema. Is thcTc any
possibility of truth in the claim that the mystic may, for an
instant of time, make contact with the reality behind the
apj^earance of the phenomenal world ? The answer, un¬
fortunately, is no. Such a belief is merely one of the dtdusions
of significance which go to make the higher mystical experi¬
ence what it often is— the most beautiful and inspiring of
all mental aberrations.

('hapU-r f'ourti't'ii

TUE STKiMATA OF THE CRUCIFIXION

A

xlLr ruKQrKN'r intkhvai.s duriiio; thc^ past seven hundred
years stf.'ric's lia\(‘ arisen eoneerninL’ t}i(‘ iniraele of tlu^
sti^matd tlu‘ supernatural appearanee of wounds or sears
upon the )iands and feet of (‘ertain devout saints and inysties
similar thos(‘ inflicted on Christ durinji; tlie erueifixion.
In soin(‘ instane(‘s it is reeordt‘d that the individual f*oneerned
showed (he marks of the thorns. th(‘ seour^in^, or the "ash
ori^dnally infheted by the* Roman spear in tlie side of the
Na/anaie. and that blood (lowed ef)])iousl\' from the wounds;
or that tli(‘ stigmata took the form of <‘xereseenees re'semblin^
nails as was first reported of St. Francis of Assisi.

Many of these stigmata wen* self'inllieted or wen* the
r(*sult of chicanery. Most of the stories, by the lime they
had lieen written down for the edifi(‘ation of j)osterity;. were
exaggerated beyond recognition. Xev(*rthel(‘ss. ccTtain will-
authenticated cases of stigmatisation have come down to us,
sojrie of tlieni relatively recent, which are, to say the least,
something of an enigma. This phenomenon, which for
hundreds of years has been considered by the devout as a
sign of divine grace, is now thought by many to be an odd
variant of those little understood disordirs which may arise
from psychological causes such as hysteria or autosuggestion.
It is this asp(*ct of the problem which will constitute tlie main
focus of interst in tiu; following pages.

The term stigmata (singular stigma), before it was applied
by St. Paul to the wounds of t he crucifixion, originally denoted
the identification-marks inflicted on the criminals and slav'cs
of the ancient world by branding with hot irons. Today the

*24 [• The Psychoi.cmiy uy the ()(’(T'i/r

term luis also a mimb(‘r of medical and biological connota¬
tions whicli, however, are of no conc(*rn hen*: they hav(‘ no
connection with the subjeet of religious eriieirorm stigmata.

The lirst and most famous of the hysteri(*s to experience
the slignuvta was St. Francis of Assisi in the y(‘ar
Once [)rovided witli an example^ of stiuinatisation, the minds
of lat(‘r religious mystics and hysterics fast(*ncd on the ph(*no-
menon with avidity. From then on until today stigmatisa¬
tion has made sporadic appearances amon^^st tlu‘ ultra-devout
and has Ihcu acclaimed a miracle by tliosc who claimed to
have (xpcneiiced it and ))y most of those* wlio heard of the*
cv(*nt.

According to Dr. Imbert Gf)urbe\ re, ‘ approximately 340
<*ast‘s of stigmata have* been recorded alttr the time of St.
Francis, tlie great majority being women. Many of these
stigmata wttc accompanied b\^ great pain: in other cases
simply the pain alone was experienced without any visible*
signs or marks appeariiig ; and a few of tin* stigmata w(*re
preceded or accompanied by a variety of visual and auditory
hallucinations with pronoiUK’cd religious the?ncs determini'd
ac<*ording to the* naive beliefs of the day.

Several (*ases of prolonged stigmatisation have* in com¬
paratively recent times been tnade the subjeet of s)>eeial
obs(*rvation. Louise Lateau. a Jh‘lgian peasant girl, first
experienced the stigmatisation in ISbtS. Kach Friday her
stigmata exuded blood. The stigmata of 4'hercsa N(‘umann
of Konnersreuth also attracted a great deal of attention.
She herself was born on a (iood Friday, and during tin* twenty-
eighth anniversary of that day, April 2nd 11>2(>, marks of the
stigmata appeared on the upper surfaces of her hands and
feet. The same thing occurred on (*ach subsciiucnt (Jood
Friday, ac(rornpani(*d by bleeding fro»n the eyes. Tht*
latter phenomenon occurred w'henev(*r, according to h(‘r own
account, slie meditated deeply on the events of the Passion.
The stigmata of a young Italian girl (iemnia (Jalvani, who
died at tlu* ag(* of twcidy-fivc in also aroused great

p\iblie interest. Deep wounds appeared on her hands, feet
and side, and later lacerations appeared on her body in
imitation of the scourging of (’hrist.

* La Stigmatisationf 1894 .

I'm: Sticmata ay tmk ( KiH iKixroN

Of these fhre(* modem ( Xjunples of stigmatisation, however,
only that of Louise Lateau remains a subjeet for speeulation.
Ttu resji Neumann, who also (‘laimed to havt* lived for years
without food, was a <l(‘lib(‘ral.e fraud aided and alndted by
her father, (iemma Cialvani’s painful stigmata w^(‘r(\ beyond
tfie slightisl shadow of doubt, the self-intlieted wounds of
a major hvst(Ti(*. Despite* this, howevea*. she {)ossesses the
proud honemr of being the* Iasi of the* stigmatists te) be*
eanonised ; she* was e*le(‘te(l te) the* worthy freeniasonrv e>f
the Saints se*ve*n months after the mitbre^ak of the* seeond
world war.

The' stigmata of Louise* LaU'au were subjecte^d to strict
nu'dieal observation by the Belgian A(‘aeleiny of Medicine.
The ble"e*ding from the* fore*he*ad w^as (*xamin(*el under a power¬
ful magnifying glass, anel the* e*e>nelusie)n was re^aehed that
the ble)oel jH-reolateel throeigh minute* triangular abrasie)ns
of the skin whiel) were seaive^ly visible* to the nake'el eye.
Drops of l)le)oel t*xudeel visibly through the skin of the* fore¬
head to form be*ads like* |)e*rspiration wliieh e'oaleseed anel
trickled de)wn the* fae*e. The bleeding was fe)und to occur
e*\ e*n if the alfccteel ar(*a was s(*aled off fre)m e'xtcrnal e*ontae*t.
In e)nc e*xpe*rime nt bleeeling occurr(*d freun the girl's hand
after the* limb hael be*eie cn<*losed in a st*al(*d-glass e*ontainer
overnight. Whethe'r the* minnle* abrasions in the skin were*
inlliedcel by methods kne)W'n e)nly to Le)uise* herself (and tlu*n*
is little: elire*ct evidenee e)f this), the* ejucstion still remains as
to how the* haemorrhage* starle*el after be ing se‘ale*el off from
all external e*e)nlae*l. 1'his might liave* lu'cn dom* by ex¬
coriation with the* linger. On tlie* otlie*r hanei. it might
possibly have* been lm)ught about by extreme e'me)tiemal or
other psyehe)genie factors following iiit(*nse (*one*eiitration
on the e*rue*itixie)n. Tlie lalt(*r alte rnative* is of great inte*re^st
anel is one* lo which we* shall re*turn lateT on in the pr(‘sent
chapter.

Pe:rhaps the* be*st knowui, and certainly the* most suee*essful
of contemporary stigmatists is an Italian Lapiie'hin Monk,
Paelre Pio, wlie) livi's in a monastry ne'ar Foggia.

After orelination he elevcloped tnbereule)sis and se)metimes
fell into traiu»e*s while holding Mass. In LHS. during one
such trancT, lie* collapsed unconscious ; stigmatic woiiiids
were* found on his hands. lV*e't anel siele, such as might

246

TiiK Psy('hoi.o(;y of tiik (uiri/r

have been iiillieted by a sharp instnmient. The stigmata
have continued to the present day ; the wounds, it is elaiim^d,
bleed (*onstantl\. saturatiiifj several liandkerehiefs daily.
Padre Pio still on occasion falls into proloTi^ed hysterical
trances whil(* holding Mass.

At first the Vati(*an was sceptical, but after two years of
investigation it pronouiu'cd the stigmata to be of miraculous
origin. Pacin' Pio lias collected ovct half a million pounds
from the faithful, witJi which he has rc'cently built a hospital
<*ontaining five* hundrc'd beds. Inajipropriatcly enough it
is to be called the Fiorcllo liU (hiardia Hos[)ital. It app(‘ars
that we still live in the age of miracles.

The external appearances of stigrr)ata haN c varied widely :
some are like de<‘p wounds which bleed fn c ly, otluTs fest(*ring
sores or simjily raw patches on the* skin : a few secan nothing
more than wart-like grow'ths; yet others, lik(‘ those of
Louise Lateau, an‘ reported as an e ffusion of blood from the*
hands or feet, side or brows, w ithout any visible* signs of a
wound, Ofte'ii the pains of the crucifixion have been exfie ri-
<‘need with no exteTnal symptoms or at most a re‘ddc?ung of
the skin in the* ance’tcd ]>arts.

The nume rous reeorde'd e»as(‘s of stigmatisation wliich have*
occurred during the ])ast seve*n eeaiturics we re- e*learly ne>t all
brought about by the same- nu*ans. The* supernatural
intcTpretatie)!! can be elisregarded. Heliefs i?i su|)e*rnatural
stigmatisation can obvieaisjy be bremght abenit in se-ve-ral
ways : erne, by se lf-inflicted wounds ; two, by elelibe*ratc
faking, using blooel or a re-d dye ; thre e*, through ae'cidcaital
injury ; four, thre>ugh localised skin eruptions, growtlis eu*
lesions; five*, through psyehosomatie* factors; and tinally,
in instances wh(*re the* jiains are apparently (‘xperience-d
without visible syinj)toms. tlirough topoalgia (hyste'rieal
pains) or by conscious simulation. It lias bee*n sugg(*ste*d that
many stigrnatiscel subje*ets liave sulTereel from hae*mophiha.
This is unlikely, however, since haemophilia is mainly
confined to males and the gre*at ma jority of the* stigmatiseel
have been wx)nK*n.

It is evident from the above that the* term .sligmaUi is a
misleading one, implying as it does a supernatural origin.
Historically speaking, however, the term is useful because*
it accurately reflects the beliefs of a past age. In this

Tiik Sti(;mata or tiii: Crihii’ixion

•247

historical sci»s(% without iudicatin^ aiiythin<y supernatural
or psycholojyfically abnorinaK w(‘ may retain tlic use of th(‘
term her(‘, whatev(*r the trut‘ nature of the phenomena ”,
For what eone(Tns us is not only the various ways in which
stigmaiie lesions, pains and the rest may have been brought
about, but also th(‘ ways in which the beli('fs in supernatural
sti/^inatisation have been ])erpetuHt(^d.

Historical eas(‘s of stigmata j)r()duee(l by fraud or de(*e])-
tion are diflieult. and sonudinies impossibl(‘. to assess. These
are, in any event, of little interest beyond the bare fact that
a good many historical examples of stigmata undoubtedly
originated in this way.

Many stigmata produced by self-mutilation were doubtless
deliberate att(*mpts to aelueve a vainglorious and spurious
n putation of saintliness with all its attendant satisfactions.
On llh‘ oth(T hand, self-mutilation by certain individuals
after )>rolong(*d concentration of the crucifixion, pcThaps
following continuous ascetic devotions, may well have oecur-
reil during hysteri(*al attacks followed by amnesia. It is
jirohahly not a eoineidc nce that many of those wdxo received
the stigmata ” wtTc subjeed to epileptiform attacks, and one
conclusion to hv drawn from the (videnee* at our disposal
is that the gr(*at maj(»rity of such attacks were hystero-
epilcptie rather than due to recurrent epiU^psy. Purposive
self-mutilation during hystero-epilejitic attacks follow(*d by
amnesia would strike no psychologist as surprising. It is
perha])s worth noting that sedf-mutilation with knives is a
prominent feature* of the artificially induee*d hystero-epilep-
toid attacks of e<*rtain Moslean Dervish cults in the Near and
Middle Fast.

IlysteTieal or deliberate self-mutilation is certainly the
explanation of most reeord(*cl cases of stigmatisation. C’er-
tain modern instaiU'cs of stigmatisation, e.g. those of (iemma
(lahani. show clearly that the extent, location and form of
the lesions are largely determined by conceptions which
tin* subjeet held before the stigmata appeared.

Stigmatisation has vi*rv often followed hysterical or
somnambulic* rc*-enaetments of the events surrounding
tlie (rueifixion. The scourging, the carrying of the cross,
the* crowning with thorns, the crucifixion, the wounding
with the spear, and even the drinking from the sponge.

24S

Tm: PsYC’Hoi.ofiv of the f)(X'ri;r

}iavi‘ boon iiicliidfd in thrsc horriCvin^ jmidoniinics witli
all tliF ay^ony ol' oik‘ who is actually <‘X|KTicn(*in^ the events
enacted. It cannot be de!u<‘d tliat such mystics suffered
jjreatly during their rcpcattnl hysterical and often convulsiv(‘
attacks, which sometimes lasted for hours : often the attacks
involved self-tlagellation (the scourging) and postures rc-
(juiring gi‘(‘al endurance to maintain ; self-inllieted wounds
similar to thos(' of the crucifixion art* only to bt* exj)e(*tcd
in many such performanet‘s.

Many of tJie mystics often felt in tlu ir sufferings a hysteri¬
cal ecstasy wliich hits a parallel in the common psychological
aberration of masochism : the sclf-impos(‘d sufferings of
many mysti(*s and religious asct'lics Iiad undoubtedly a
sexual aetiology.

One exe(*llent example of s(‘lf-infliett‘d stigmatie lesions
has er)me down to us from the eontemj)orarv biogra})hy of
the nun Lukardis of* Alxrwtimar. ’ Lukardis had long
desired the stigmata and ( ventually aehit^ved it by jxTsis-
tently stubbing her ])alms with the tii)s of her fingers and by
chafing the upj)er })art of the feet with Ikt big toes. I'his
praetiet' was in all [)robability a nervous habit brought on
by her intense desirt* for the stigmata. It was seen that
sh(‘ continued the practice after the wounds had app(‘ared.
Y(*t this did not prevent herself and othcTs from regarding
her stigmata as suj)ernatural marnfestatioTvs. Like Louise
Lateau, her stigmata bled every Friday (presumably through
further stubbings and ehafings), a fact whi(*h certainly easts
a good deal of suspicion upon th(* origin of the Belgian girl’s
stigmata, and indeed upon all stigmata which manifest
themselves in periodic bk ediug.

Accidental injury to the hands or feet, during moments
of mass religious freiizy, might have well given rise* to beliefs
that the wounded pca’son had been the r(‘cipi(‘nt of divim^
stigmatisation. In tin* Middle Ages such a scene can easily
be imagined. The wounded man raises his bleeding hands
in fright or pain and those nearest him, in the excitement of
the* moment and ever on the watch for “ signs ” and miracles,
cry out ecstati(?ally that they have been vouchsaf(‘d the
bl(‘ssed sight of the stigmata. The cry spreads like lightning,

* Se#* ITorbert Thurston, .S. .)., The Phewtmena of Slfpnniization, Proc*.

S.lMt., 32, 1922, p|). 18.5-187.

Tin: STKiMATA OF TIIF CRUCIFIXION

240

anti yet another case of stigiimtisation is nrorded in the
eeelesiastieal archives.

Then* is no doubt tJiat injuries to the hands, in the case
of relii^icus liystxTies of the Middle A^^es. could ^ive rise to
subse<]ueijt delusions of stigmatisation, ev(*n though the
individual concerned was under no illusion at the time the
injury was received. Y'ct again with hysterical individuals,
a deliberate* infliction of wounds on the liands and feed could
easily d(*V(‘lopa delusion that the wounds were in tact eonfer-
r(*d suiH*rnaturally. Dclusiem has filayed a very large part
in the production ot historical eases of stigmatisation. To
reason otherwise would bt* to gainsay human nature. From
what we know of the Middle* Ages and later periods it is
even pre:)bab\e tliat e*nterj>rising memasties inltieted by tbree
the marks e)f the stigmata em unwilling \ i(‘tims. For if was
always aeeoimt(*el a tiling of great er(*dit and gle)ry te) the
abbe\s and monasterks (»f those days, that signs of divine
favour she)edel visit any one of the inmates ; and this is
scarcely surprising, since such miraele*s increased their fame
and fill(‘d their coffers from the* pockets e)f innunu*rable
pilgrims.

Delusions of supernatural stigmatisation in (‘arlier centuries
are attributable to a variety of factors, among them ce*rtain
l<»ealised skin disorders. Fleers, carbuncles, warts, ex¬
coriations and some forms of dermatitis appearing in more
or less .symmetri(!al form on both hands, (*ither by (*hance
or from various either causes, are all fiossible* sources of
delusejry belief in stigmatisation. In this connection it is
of intenst to rt*mcniber that the stigmata of St. Francis
took tlu* form of fleshy excrescence s which were* subsequent¬
ly reported as resembling the nails wluTcwith Christ liad
been erucifi<*d.

Localised and symmetrical affections of the skin could
have* be^cn brought about in several ways, ('hance coinci¬
dence is obviously one. Infection of the* hands by scratching,
in the* e*ase* of those mystics who longeel fe>r the divine grae*e
of stigmatisation, is another. Diseases pe*euliar to the
hands and feet can also be e*e)nsidereel, suedi as cheiropom-
pholyx (in whie*li blisters tille^d with fluid suddenly appear).

One possible explanation of stigmatie lesions has been
sugg(*sted to the author by Mr. Joseph Neirthceitt of Pelynt,

‘250

ThK PsY( HC>l.()(iY OF TIIK OcCVl.T

Cornwall. Ho hinisolf freciiienlly siilVorod iVoiu painliil
cha[)s in th(‘ palms of his hands from working on tho fnrm -
work to whioh ho has boon regfularly aooustomod. TIk so
cha])s, or ooarsonin^ and splitting of tho skin. sonu*fimos
hoalod and broko out again sovoral tirnos in tlu* oours(‘ of a.
wintor, although thoy oooasiotially lastt‘d h>r months. Thoy
W(‘ro gonorally do<‘p andaooompanitd by a small suppuration,
and tondod to inllamniation if noglo(‘t(‘(L Tho nuns and
monks of tho monastorios w(to oftcai oompc llod to oarry out
hard manual labour, and if sojiu^ of thorn dovt'lopod sovoro
iTiflaujod ohaps in tho j)alms wliioh " miraoulously ” rofusod
to hoal. or wJiioli h(*alod and brok(' out again poriodioally,
thoy might oasily oom<‘ to n^gard thorti as manitostations of
divin(‘ stigmatisation.

Po sibly tho most likoly souro(‘ of stigmatic* dolusions aro
luairotio ox(‘(»riations, oausod jxThaps l)y souk' minor irrita¬
tion or looal skin disordtT but prolonged and oxao(‘rbatod by
a norv(ajs habit of soratohing. It is significant that siudi
(‘xooriations occur most often wath hysterical individuals,
for symptom;; usually assooiatod with hysteria have often
aooompaniod dolusions of stigmata.

Tho most common form of mairotio i‘xooriation is drnnafifis
artcfacta or lesions of tho skin solf-inlliotod by soratohing.
Tho hysterical or neurotic individual may intliot suoJi lesions
for a variety of niotivos. som(*times consciously, and often,
in tho ease of hyste rics, involuntarily. IIi‘ may be* activated
by vv desire for sympathy or attention, or for an invalidism
w^hioh would enable him to bo moved from unoongemial
work or to osoapo from an environment to which lie (or she)
is ill-adjusted. Those excoriations, in fact, an* typical
hystori(*al syndromes. They may become* so extreme as to
cause the* loss of a limb Ihrough oxce'ssive* ulceration. It
is worth e)bse*rving tlial with many such oases, oven when the
psye*hiatrist has eone-lusively dcmonstrale*d to tho patient
that his exeoriatieais are se*lf-inflicted, it is oft(*n impossible
to obtain a ce)nfcssion.

There are* se)und psyche)logical reasorjs for b(*lieving that
in the past many religious hysterie*s who re^gularly practiseel,
as part e)f their devotie)ns, prolonged contemplation of the
events surrouneling the Crucifixion, produced their stigmata
by neurotie* e*xeoriation. Such mystics freejuently entered

Thk Stic.mata of thf: (’hucifikion ti;)!

n state* of traiure* by virtue e>f the v(‘ry intensity <>f tlu ir
meditation-meditation which often took upon itself a
virtually patholo|rieal character. Neurotiet scratchinn[ can
b(‘ carried out without the conscious awareness of the in-
elividual conce rned. The* seTatching may even oecMJr during
sle*e*f), particularly whe‘re‘ the cause e)f the scratching is a
subje*e'tive sensa1ie)n of loe^aliscel irritatie)n f>r itching (neuro-
(lenmUiiis). IVe)babh* most pe'ople* haxe* felt the uticenn-
lortable sensation of itching when the eon versa! ion turns on
to such le)wly subjects as fleas. Sue*h ite*hing is alrne)st
eaitirely^ imaginary and in hyste*rical inelivieliials may re*sult
in an involuntary habit of (‘onstant se*ratehing le*aeling to
seveTc e‘xe*oriatie)n.

It is by no means impreibable Uial <‘erlaii) hyste*rie‘al
mystics who cemtemplateel the erueifi\ie)n felt the intense*
itching e>r irritation of neure)-eka*matilis in tlu* hanels and
feot whether tlie nnelerlying ewise of the* irritation was a
suberonscious de‘sire* for the* mirae*le* of the stigmata or a
subce)nscie)us tear aroused by the e*e)nte'm|)Iati()n of a realist i-
e*ally painted image* of (he* eTUcified C hrist.

Historical recorels leave little doubt that some* e‘ase‘s of
stigmatisation have been nedhing me)r(' than a transient
hallu(*ination or <le‘lusion. whe)se authe*ntieity (lej)ends solely
on the we)rd e>f tlieise* who e*laim te) have* experiene*e‘d it.
Other (*ase*s of hallucination, however, are of gre*at inte*rest.
particularly where tlie* subjee*t has expe‘ri(*ne‘eel intei\S(* pain
in the hands aiul lee*! witheait \'isible l<‘sie)ns.

Se>me mystics experie'nce*ei similar pains in the* siele of tlie
body e*e)rr(*sponding te^ the gash infli(*te*el by the Reiman spe*ar
in the side of Christ. While some* of these may have been
instance\s of delibe*rate simulation, eithcrs w(*re* certainly
cases of hysterical topoalgia. Te)})oalgia pains are* loealisexl
hallueinateiry^ pains, sometimes of great intensity, whie*h
have iH) organic re*ason for their existeiu*e anel where the*
nerve distribution excludes the possibility of a physieilogieal
cause. In a superstitious age a supernatural int(*rpret.ation
of such pains is only to be expected. In many cases the
pains came* suddenly during moments of rapt contemplation
or hysterical frenzy.

According to the Rev. Herbert 1'hurston, * intensi* pain
■ The Phenomena iif Stifimatizatwn, l*roc. S.IMt., 1922, p. 105.

•252

Thk Fsyc'ikm.ooy ok thk (Krri/r

was in many instances fell for months, and sometimes for
years, beiore tin- appearance of the stipmatie lesions. If
this was fli(‘ ease, it seems probable lhat hysterical topoalgia
first gave rise to the delusion of stigmatisation and that
subsecpient excoriation or mutilation produced the physical
symptoms- a s<()uel doubtless rendered expc'dient by the
disbelief and ridicule which the topoalgie sidlerer must hav('
often faet'd.

Top<)algie pains in the hands, feet, tlie side and even the
brows (in r(’ferenee to the crown of thorns), may bt* reekotied
as lh( true stigmata, i.e. stigmata which., although not
conferred by supernatural na'ans. are the product ()f solely
psychogenic factors. Psychogenic stigmata can be (smvcn-
iently divided into two classes : first, topoalgie pains cor¬
responding to the wdunds of the erneitixion ; second, visible
physical symptoms w ith a similar correspondence which hav('
a purely psychological ac'tiology- -these latter we may (*all
psycfmomaiic Have genuine psychosomatic stig¬

mata ever occurred '! Can mental factors ahmc produce
external lesions and the like in specific locations on the body f
(an certain forms of hysteria, suggestion or autosuggestion
affect the body’s tissues, direelly or indirectly, to produce
the phenomenon known since the thirteenth century as
stigmatisation'.'’ These arc the (pn'stions to which, as yet,
no ('irUi 'ni answer is forthcoming.

.Ml that can be said is that although little convincLng
proof of psychosomatic stigmatisation has come to light,
certain psychiatric ('vidence favours such a [lossibility.
Briefly, w'hat wv must consider is the possible occurrence
of localised organic changes in speeitie areas of the human
body brought about directly by psychological process(‘s.
Such changes may occur in certain nervous or hyst(;rical
individuals but not, as far as the psychiatrist is aware, of
sufficient intensity to account for the nwire dramatic mani¬
festations of stigmatisation.

The KiViDKNCE roK Psyciiosomattc Stk;mai V 253

Tiik Evii)I’:n( e for Psycjjosomatic Stkemata

Occasionally one (*oincs across clinical cas(\s very reminis¬
cent ol* th(‘ reputed [)heuonu‘non of stigmatisation. R. L.
Moody describes svie]\ a case. ’ llis ])atienl, who had been
brutaily l)eat(*n by on(‘ of her ])ar(‘iits in her youth, was
subjected to analytical tn^atment. During analysis the
events of h(‘r past relumed vividly to lier mind ami this
resulted in llu* (‘merge nce of urtiear(‘al weals on those' parts
of lu'i* body u]H)n wliieh lier injuries had originaHy been
ijillieted. Tliis is an unusual ease. \V}iil(‘ it is well known
that urtieareal (‘ruj>tinns may Ix' produced by (‘motional
factors. Ih(‘ spe'cific localisation of such (*ru])lions is n‘lativcly
rare'.

Moody’s case and a fc‘\v similar ones establish with a fair
degree' of ceTtainty tlial certain physiological changes can be
produced in specific locations on the body xchich arc predeter¬
mined by mental factors alone. This fact is obviously of
grreat interest in relation to the phenomenon of stigmatisation,
it ap])(‘ars to reaider possible 1h(' loe'alisation of certain
psyclxeigenie* disorde’rs and eruptions whose distribution
depends on the dir(‘et innuen<‘e of unconscious mcTit^l
processes,

Atoj)ic (allergic) deTina litis, warts, ch(‘ire)p(*inpholyx,
urticaria, scborrhocic dennatitis, all may have a psyt*hog(Miio
aetiology. Small localised rashes on the hands may have
bc(‘n the t^xj)lanation of a number of historie^al eases of
stigmata, though this in itsedf is of little importaiu'c unless
they l(‘d to a ele^gree of suppuration or ulceration which
could 1)<‘ interpreted by the supcrstitifuis mind as evidence
of stigmatisation.

What we wisli to s(*ek is ('videncc' that mental factors
alone (*an ])roducc changes in the vasomotor system such
as to cause capillary liaemorrhage (ecchyinosis), or at least
subcutaiu'ous (congestion of the crapillarics (erythema)
leading to severe inllainmation. If Icx'alised erythema
can l)c brought about by psychosomatic* processes, then
it is ((uite possible that localised eechymosis and even
chronic ulceration might similarly occur. Part of the
process of ordinary inflammation is diapedesis, or the iii-

‘ The Lancet, 19i8, 1, p. !M>4.

*2.54 Tm: PsvrHoi.fKJY of thk Ocrui/r

filtnilion of whiU* blood corpuscltrs (loucooytcs) ilinmgh
tlic <‘apillarv walls. With certain subjeets it app(‘ars
possible that red (*orpuse1es might also infiltrate through
tlie eapillary walls, without rujituring the ea})illaries, to
j)roduee a suirusion of blood under tin* skin. This may
well l)e the (‘xplanation (»f eertain very ran* elinieal eases
of '' swe ating of blood ” {hacmeti(lrosis)y wluTe the blood
apparently percolates through the skin via the sw<‘at duets ;
numbers of such eas<-s in the past an* doubtl<‘ss attributable
to a disorder known as chromidrosis\ or the ex(Tetion of
abnormally coloured ptTspiration : it has also becai sug¬
gested that ehromidrosis might (‘X])Iain eertain eases of
stigmatisation. Siiheutaneous capillary haemorrhage^, if
txtreine. (*ould etrtainly lead to raw open patches on the*
skin and sul)sequently t() chronic ule(*ration. This very
faet, however, leads us to suspect that all reportt'd eases
of stigmata in wliieh the* ha<*morrhag(‘ was vopunia weTc
intlieted by external means of injviry or were* the jmxluet
of (‘hieanery or delusion. Proven (*as(*s of ehiearu'rv are
certainly not lacking.

There is eonsiderabh* evid(*nee that the vasomotor syste m
(the mechanism which controls the normal dilation and
(xjnstnetion of the blood vessels) can b(* alleeted by hypnotic
suggestion. The autonomic nervous syst(*in that part of
the* nerve)ns system which re*gulates many of the internal
organs which are ru)t subject to ve>litie)nal control can also
be affe*cte*d by the same means. Hnt the use of suggexstioii
to prodnex: clianges in the v'^ase>motor anel autonomic nervous
systems is an indirect process aflce'ted mainly by the opera-
te)r’s control of the im«agination anel he‘nce the emotions.
The imre‘se>lved question ee)ne‘eming stigmatisation is whether
or not the vasornoteir system can be suflieiently controlled
by snbeonseiems mental pro(*esses as to be* able to produce
localised (Jianges in the capillaries—changers which we)uld
result in eapillary eongestie>ii or ev(*u haemorrhage.

Moody’s test-case *, witnessed by a medical ee)lle*ague,
involved actual bleeding, apparently through thc^ action of
psychosomatic fa(!tors alone. Red streaks appeared across
the back of the patient’s hands after dramatically reliving
an accident in wliieh she had been struck across the hands

* ihifl.

Tmk Kvii)kx(’k foh PsYc’iidSOMAi’ic Sti(;mata 255

wiilv a whip. Th<‘ ri^ht hand was Wivw encased in lint ami
plaster. Hloodstains were revealed (>!\ the lint dressing
when tlie plaster was r(‘jnoved Ihe following morning and the
weals showTcl small (Tuptions of the outer layer of the skin
(epidermis).

This ease presents a number of parallels with th(* inv(‘stiga-
tions eonduet(‘d by the Belgian Aead(*my of Medieiiu* eon-
eerning th(‘ stigmatie bleeding of Louise Lateau. Tn both
eases ble<*ding oeeurr(*d after th(‘ alfeeted area had been elfee-
lively proteeted against possible excoriation on th(‘ part of
the hyst(Tie. Y(*t su(*h eases do not. unfortunat(‘ly, provide
eonelusivt* I'videnee Ibr loealisttd psy(*hosonia.ti(r bl(‘(‘ding ;
for ther(‘ is always th(‘ possibility that tht liystcTie has rjian-
aged to outwit tin* doctor or j)syehiatrist when unobserved
for any haigth of time.

Moody's oV)servati(ais are ot lh<‘ gr(‘al(‘st signitiean(*(‘
if eoidirmalion is fortheoming. Tliey would indeed iridi-
eat(‘ that blec^ding may lx induced by ])sychosoinatie pro-
(*(\sses. including sugg<*stion. In this (‘onneetion \\v may
turn to the (wperiments eondueted by sona* of tlie French
psy<dioth(*rapists of the latter half of the ninetecFith eiaitury.
The hyst(Ti(*al sul)jeets with whom they experimented had
been reduced to a state of ultra-suggestibility by the fro
ejuent reeurrenee^ of hyj)nosis; today f(‘W' psy^*hiatrists
would care t(» put their owm expeTirnental intert‘sls before
the w(*llbeing of their patient in this way.

A number of these experimenters idaimed to liax e indueeil
bleeding by hypnotic suggestion :

“ J aiiiy rartiaa* iiuaition Mir rxp('rimrtits of Hoiirnu Iturot, and
nerjon, w'ho iiuluecxl lilrrding by suggestion in the siuue subjrrl as
Mabilli', Itamadirr and Jules Voisin. Pnysegur Jiad witnessed ihe
same thing. Hleeding of the nose appeareil at eommand in the*
above-mentioned subject, and later on hleeding from the skin at
a time deirided on beforehand.*’*

Modern psychotlierapists generally rej(*et tin* evidene<‘
of these experiments as being insnflieic'ntly well-controlled,
nevertheless there is alw^ays the possibility that their findings
may one day Ixi eonfirined.

Of lesser moment, but of eonsiderable imporlanei* if
verification is fortheoming, are those cxj)criments in which
localised disturbances of the lymphatic* mecdianism arc
* -Moll, A., Hypvotmn^ p. li t.

The Psychology or the Occult

‘25r>

reported to have been brou^jht about by suggestion. Lvinj)h
is a watery colourless fluid which is derived from the blood
through th(‘ walls of the capillaries. The aim of the experi-
merits in question was to produce blisters by hypfiotic
suggestion. Kraft-Kbbing. Fou(‘achou. Forel and J)el-
boeuf all reported the raising of blisters by hypnotic sug¬
gestion. Stories liav(‘ alsf) b(‘en recorded, though they
lack full medical confirmation, wheri‘ the subject has turned
on a cedd tap in very cold WT'atlu r and the stinging sensation
due to the icy slrt^am onto his hand caused the painful
illusion of being scalded. Swellings and even blisters
are reported to have resulted.

Dr. J. A. JIadfield giv(‘s an interesting account of .somc^
eomparativ(‘ly modern exj)erinH‘nts of his own in the sup¬
pression of inflammation and the raising of blisters by hyp-
noti(^ suggestion. The subj(‘(!t was first hypnotised. His
arm was then touched with the red-hot end of a steel pencil-
case after the suggestion had been giveix that he should
feel no pain.

TJierc WHS no pain either when tin* skin was toueh^*(l or afterwards.
Hut the remarkable thing was tliat in thesr burns tin*re was no
hyperaemia around. Roinicl each of the two spots, whicdi themselves
presented the ordinary appearance of blisters, there was a thin red
line and nothing more. These blisters healed very rapidly and
never gave any sign nf inttammathm or pain.''*

With the same subject a blister-raising experiment was
tried. The subject, a leading seaman suffering froui combat
hysteria, or shell shock ”, was first hypnotised. Had-
field touched his arm with his finger while telling him that
his arm was being touched with a red-hot iron, and that
a blister would form. The patient winced as though badly
hurt. Within nine hours a blister had formed.

“ There was a white patch of dead skin in the centre, iiudenieath
which was a slight amount of fluid and hyperaemia (congestion)
around, . . . the blister increased in size, and by the next day there
was a large quantity of fluid, giving the exact a[>f)r*aranee of a blist(‘r
by heat." ’

Hadfield successfully r(q)eated the experiment witli
the same subject.

^ Hadfleld, .1, A., The Laiu:et, 1917, ii, p. 078.

* loc. eit.

Tni: Kvij3KNce kok Psychosomatic’ Sticmata

257

It liHs nlways Ikt’H dinicTilt to ensure* inaxiiuum control
during su(*h e*xpe*rinie*nts. The* ])e)ssif)ilit y of trickery
by the* siif)je*ct nmsl always l)c considc'reel. a.nd ce‘ncrally
speaking, the iTie*dieal profession are* inclined to l)c sccptie‘al.
But some* form of initial stimulus slightly eiama^nn^ to the
tissue's, siic’h as heavy jmssure* or rubbing, mi^lit we*ll
be^ a pre*re*epiisile* for tlie* a])pi*arancc of psyclie)^e‘nic stig¬
mata, both in tlie e*as(* of the* re ligious }iyste*ric and in the
ps\ ehe )t her a 1 >e‘U t i e* e • 1 i n i e *.

Them^h localiscel disturbane*e*s in tlie* lymphatic* mech¬
anism may possibly be produe-eel by su^^tfc'stion. this does
not indie*at(* tJiat c'apillary liaeinorrhaj^n* can likewise be*
induce*d. For although lym])h issues thre)u^‘}i the* walls
of the* e*aj>illarics, a very ^reat pressure won let be* n(*ce*ssary
to force tlie blood thre)U^ti the* Ju*althy tissiie*s ; the* blood's
far more* ra])icl rate of e*on^je‘alin^ wenild e*crtainly limit
any <*apillary e‘xuelatie)n. The* |)re)l)le*m the'refore still
amounts to whe‘th(‘r or not le)e*alise*el psy('hose)matic lesions
of the* skin arc j)ossible, and at our j)re sent sta^e* e)f know¬
ledge this appe*ars unlikely unle*ss, as just ne)te‘ek c*e*rtain
damage* to the* skin lias alre*aely be*e*n inllie‘te*d.

The* newt ejuestion to eonsidc’r is whe‘tlu*r eir not ])sye‘ho-
somatie* ])roc*e*sse*s can initiate or retard a hae nie)rrhage'
once the* skin has be*(*n bre)ke*n by a cut, wounel or other
le*sions.

We have* alre*ady me*nlione*d the* inllue*ne*e* which psye*ho-
logieal fae*tors may J>lay in aggravating or mitigating the
conse'(|ue*ne*e*s of physie*al injuries. Partie*ularly rcle*vant
to the problem of the* stigmatisatiein are the many re*e‘e)rde*el
instances whcTc blen'ding from wounds or surgie*al operations
has be*e*n partially or cc)iuple*te‘ly arrestee! by suggestion.

Janet re'cords an e*xe*e*lle‘nt experiment in which he* e*stab-
lishc'd tliat a re*strietion of ble*eding e*an be* brought about
by a change in a patient’s mental state*. Ilis patient suflerc'd
from functional jiaralysis ae*eomj)aiiie‘d by anaesthesia
and a re*tard(*d eireulation. The jiatient was eure*d by
suggestion and

simulLanc'ously witli tin* re'turn of sensibility, a number of other
nioveint'iits ooiilci be clet(*ete<i. The cireuliitiou was restored, so
iliat llu* skill lost its pallor. Whemis previously a prick did not

‘258

Till’. PsvciU)i.oGY oy THE Occui/r

bleed, now when tlie skin w'us jirieked with a j»in a droplet of blood
would appear, and the skin would redden in the neighbourhood of
tlie priek."'

This and other experiments givt* some eredenee to the
view that psyehosomatie alVeetions of the vasomotor system,
in partieular the arresting arid excitation of capillary haem¬
orrhage. may sometinu's he a (‘ontrihiitorv eause of sti^j-
matie bleeding. In any (vent, it s(*ems possible that
intermittent haemorrhage may be produced In psycho¬
genic factors, in the (‘ase of certain hysterical individuals
with ehronie lesions on the hands or fetd. This would
certainly conform to the traditional conception of stig¬
matisation and also explain a number of the more modern
instances of the plu nomcnon ; the ({uestion of the a(*tual
origin of the lesions is relatively unimportant. The ilraw-
back about sueh an explanation of iidiTmittent stigmatic
bleeding is that there is nothing to pn verd the self-pro¬
claimed receptor of the stigmata from causing a recurring
haemorrhage by excoriation of the athelecl ar(‘a long¬
standing hsioi's often be(*ome relatively insensitive to
pain- and this seems to be the most likely (‘xplanation
in the vast majority of eases of purported stigmatisatk)n.

Instan(‘('s of the psychosomatic arrest of bl(‘eding arc
numerous, although some of the more dramatic claims
are open to other inter|)rctations. Moll i»u*ntions that
m(‘norrhagia may be induced or arrested by suggestion.*
Ksdaile and others reported that operations under hypnotic
analgesia sometimes resulted in a diminutimi of ha(‘morr-
hage but that when the patient was awakened the bleeding
increased to the normal degree. Professor (!. G. Seligmaii
records that he himself has witmssed th(* rapid cessation
of ble(*ding from self-inflicted wounds by the Aisawa der¬
vishes. ’ Similarly, the speciality of the Lapp shamans
is reput(*d to be tlie cessation of ble(*ding from wounds
by suggi'stion.

There remains little doubt that the mitigation or even
suppression ol‘ inflammation may be brought about psycho-
genically. Professor Delboc-uf’s experinu'iits at the* end

* .lanft, P., Psychol Off ical Hmliug, vol. 11, p. 79a, 192.i.

^ Hypnotism^ p. 114.

* “ Ritual and Mcdifiiu*,” in Enquiry into the Vnknmton, p. 57.

Thk Evidkxc'K foh F\sych()S()Matic Sti(;mata

of th(* last (•(‘iitury arc of considtTablt* interest in this cou^
nectioii. Jle made symmetrieal hums on eac^h arm of two
hysierieal patients. He suf^gested to these patients, while
under hypnosis, that the burns on their left arms would
heal more raj)idly than thos(‘ on tlu ir right. In his report
lu* states that the ( tfeet of the suggestion was vt ry marked,
the l<‘ft>arm burns healing more' rapidly than the others
and with less intlammatiou. Sueh exptTiments as these
are diilicult to npeat th(‘se days. IJItra-hysterieal sub¬
jects are diilieult to eome by, and the modern psychiatrist
who found one would seare(‘ly lx lik( ly to make a guinea-
pig of his patient.

The elfeets obtained ])y the continental psy(‘hotherapists
of the nineteenth <*entury were the rc^sult of experiments
on uneducated and highly sugg(‘stible hysterics rendered
inercasingly sensitive* to suggestion by ealeulated re*petition
of hypnosis. Tltra-suggestibility is now, with rare ex¬
ceptions. only to be round in primitive societies ; and until
experimeTds are carried out upon sonu* of tin* world's “ back¬
ward races we shall probably not find out the degree to
which suggestion and hysteria (*an c*nVet human physiology,

Sueh modilieations (»f the vasomotor system as are in¬
volved in the psyehogenie arn^st of hacauorrhage and miti¬
gation of innammation (and possibly the raising of blisters)
are very little understood. That a degree of (‘ontrol is at
all possible by psychological means is still a disputed topic
in medical and psychiatric circl<‘s. But it is well known
that in many hystcTical disorders bodily functions normally
dependent upon the autonomic iutvous system havt* often
been profoundly stimulated or retarded. Hypnotic sug¬
gestion, like hystxTia, may nsult in the increase or decrease
of glandular functions and secretions, often to a remarkable
degree. It cannot therefore bo stated categorically that
localised and symmetrieal psyehosomatie erythemata, ee-
chytnoses and even lesions are impossible, even though
they remain unlikely. In any event it would always be
impossible to discover whidher a lesion resulting from a
psyeJiosomati(‘ ee.ehymosis had not be('n initiated by physical
injury. No ease* at all can be mad(‘ out for the sudden
emergence of psyehosomatie lesions through suggestion
or hysteria.

260

Tiik Psychology ok the Occult

If ])sychogenic luoditioatioiis of the vas(nnot()r system
arc at all ])ossil)le, it docs maki> iHore credible the theory
that sporadic bleeding from open wotinds or ulcerated areas
can be broufjht about by ehaiiffes in the stifrmatist's mental
state. Mevertheless, after surveyinfj the numerous eases
of stiffinatisation of whieh a reliabh* record exists, one
gains the impression that the psyehosomatie explanation
of the stigmata is something of a red herring. In the
opinion of the present writer, religious stigmatisation
is principally a hysterical ])henonu‘non inanitVsting itself
in self-mutilation, delusion and in topoalgia or localised
neurotic pain. There is not the least doubt that genuine
suffering was experienced by a number of stigmatised
mystics who. after intense meditation upon the events
surrounding the Passion and the t’rueilixion. felt their
hands and feel burning and aching in response to their
tojjoalgie halhjeination. Te-poalgie stigmata are the true
stigmata. Such a phenomenon could oidy be iid(;rpreted
in the way it was, ev'cn by the most liigh minded and in¬
telligent of the Saints—as a sign of diviiU' grace super-
naturally bestowed by God. No other explanation was
open to tht'in.

Religious stigmatisation is mainly a hysterical syndrome
from the psychiatric point of view, and the stigmata follow'
the usual trends observable in hysterical disorders. The
syndrome often takes a form whieh the subjict can turn
to good a(;courd. and it has been of im'stimable value from
the religiou.s {)oint of view, e.specially during the iniraclc-
conseious Middle Ages.

('haptcr Fifivcn

LYCASri/ROPy

W’kkk-Wolvks AM) Ti(;kk-Mi:n

ROM riMi: ro timk ( xploriTs, niissi()iiari(‘s aiul (Miipiro
iidiniinstmtors publish accounts of weird happenings that
have <*oni(‘ within the ken of their exp<Ti(‘nce. Such stories
of the occult, od'ered in a half‘-apoIogcti(* niaiuur. usually
include tlu‘ observation that those who hav(‘ spent their
lives anion^ })rimitive or savage pe()pl(*s no longer scoff
at tail's of “ the ijueer side of things ", Amongst the
most persistent of such tales are those of lycanikropy —
the reputed ability of certain individuals to take on the
external form of a. wild animal or to “ enter into ” the body
of on(‘ and so direct its movements.

Lyeanthropieal legends have their origin in the dawn
of history and have continued down to the present day;
it is only in the last fifty years or so that wide-spreail belief
in were-wolves has died out in Kurope. All j^rimitive
and peasant societies have their lyeanthropieal beliefs.
It is not surprising, therefore, that educated and intelligent
people should occasionally become infected with the same
brand of superstition after living for years among such
communities. Th<* lyeanthropieal tale often follows a
j)eculiar pattern which has been in evidiaice as long as
such beliefs have <*xisted : An animal is kilh'd or wounded
by hunters and a man is found dead or wmunded in his hut
with marks of injurv similar to those found on the beast

itS(‘lf.

261

2()*J Tuk PsYriH>L(K;v ()!' Tin: Occ ri/r

Some of the published accounts arc so circumstantial
and dctail(‘d that if wc accepted the author’s integrity or
trusted his judgnu nt the validity of an occult lycanthropical
interpretation could not be doubted. Traxcllers’ tales,
however, have a w( ll-deserved nputation for exagg(‘r-
ation and conveniiait distortion : even today intelligent
whitt* men report such happ(‘nings with a lack of scepti¬
cism w'hich shows how far they have unconsciously iinbib(‘d
ideas of native magic and superstition, ^'et travclhrs'
tales of lycanthrojiy often have a basis in some kind ol*
fact and it is this aspe ct of the problean which will bi‘ dis¬
cussed in th(‘ (‘usuing pages.

The beli(‘f in lycanthropy very probal)ly had its origins
in primitive^ magic, but th(‘ perpetuutinn of such beliefs
into comparatively modern times in Kairope must rest
on other grounds. And in p(»int of fact \\v live often faced
with psychological anomalies in regard to which both
the superstitious savage and the avtragi' edu(‘ated Kuro-
peaii are almost <*(pially ignorant.

Belief in lycanthropy is well-nigh universal in primitive
societies. In West AJrica and Northern Burma it has
attained such proportions that the nalivt‘ judicial system
makes provision for it as for any other misdeam^anour by
which life or property is destroyed or injurcal. Here is
an amusing exan pie of the extent to which the nati\'(*
j? ind may (*onfusc the real and unreal :

In the lUiin' miujte distric't where the hif»|H> hail destroyed the
eabt)aL;e pateli, iJie irate owner also look the niatter to court and
was awarded for nialieious damage to Ids property : not, of course,
against tlie hij»po, but against a fellow villager, an enemy of his
and a member of a very seeret society whose initiates were believed
to possess dual souls. The defemlant in this ease adrnitti'd that
the particular Jiippo (hat had caused die damage was his own animal
oul, but he pleaded that the damage was not nialieious - he had not
ineiled the liippo to eornmit the act. Indei^d, fie said, he had strictly
warned it not to damage people's gardens in eas(‘ it got shot -for
when the animal dies the man dies also. 'I'he court, how<‘ver, found
that the damage was malieious, for the didVndant liad gone around
boasting that Ids animal soul had done it; and ‘ becrause ’ f quote
from tiie judgment ‘ those who have Idpriopotamuses as their
bush souls must know iiow to control them.' *'•

* .lones, O., “’Stories of West African .luju," The Listener, August
L>lst, ltd7.

W' K K K - W () L V KS A N J ) T I (; K H - M 1 IN

In Africa such beliefs have been turned to hideous ad¬
vantage* by s(‘erei soeiedies : calling themselves the leopard-
men, the hyena-nun or the eTex*eKlile-men, the^y delib¬
erately fe>sti‘r belief in their lye*anthr<)pieal poweirs by elressiiig
in the* skin of the wild animal, l(*aving tracks in the grounei
pertaining to the anifnal-f(‘tish of the secret sex'iety in
question, anel leaving th(‘ir vie*tims torn and lacerated in
imitati(»n of a wild beast. Suedi pra(*lie(‘s for the nK)st
part s(‘rve nuTely to gratify a ghastly cruelty, inspireul
and elireeted by the local ju-ju-Jiiaii or witch eloetor. 'fhe
unfortunate victims frecjuently have their c'ntrails torn
eiut while th(‘\ still li\e.

Such secret societies were often eannii)alistie tlu'V
praetieud eh vmiring ]nn'ls ed’ the Innuau anatonvy such as
the* heart. e‘y(*s and liver and the more tendc'r parts of tlie
llesh. The trails leading away from tlu* scene* (»f the crime
would b(* those of a hy(‘na or h‘opard or ero(‘odile. bnl
after sonu* distance* the tracks of human feet would sn|)-
plant tlu'in to lea\’e no doubt that it was the leopard-men
or hyena-m(‘n who had b(*en at work. Tlu* terror en‘at(‘d
by such ui(*thods in tlu* minds of tlu* primitive blacks can
well b(* imagiiu'd. Furthernion*. if one* of the lyeanthropists
was shot or wound(*d, it is easy to stx* how stories (d’ lyean-
tliropieal jnetaniorphosis might spr(*ad. A state of e xtreme
emotional tension and high suggestil)ility and expt'ctation
would be aroused among tlu* local j)opulation. in which
d(‘lusi(»ns and (*V(‘n visual hallucinations might occur, givi?ig
further impetus to tlu* myth of actual ly(*aiithropieal trans¬
formations.

\. Kodor, Ji jjsyehoaiialyst. mentions a ease where a
white man e\p('ri(*need such a delusion or hallueinatioii
while watching an orgiastic jackal danci*. Fodor givts
an interesting psychoanalytical intcrjm tation of the events :

I liavc* in iny reeonts a first iiaiid account rctjranling lycaii-
llirO|iy. This account is dated Mar(*li liani, IDiia and it comes
troni a Dr. (h'rald Kirkland, then a aT-ycar-old nic<iical practitioner
at Trcllwis, (.lamorganshirc, Kngland and forincrly (iovernment
Medical Ofliccr in Sontliorii Rluxlesia. Dr. Kirkland had scon a
native ja<*kal dance* and enuh! ahnost stvvar to it that ha> natixrs uciualUj

•264

Thk I’syciu)i.o(’.y of tiik Orcri/r

transformed themsehes into jackals.* Ilis Hccount, first sfiit t(» me
in a letter, was printed two years later; it is not only vivid and de-
tailedf Init exposes the psy<*holo^ieal motive behind the ly(*anthropie
eeremonial he witnessed. The motive is clearly orgiastic. Desiring
to he as potent as only do^s can be, tht* African native's succeeded
after eatini; ‘ hi^h ' meat and elrinkin^ lar^e (jiiaiitities of liquor, in
playiufj; the part of jackals with an un<*anny re'alism. By the time
the or^y rt'aclu'd its e'limax I.)r. Kirkland was so overwrought that he
may have easily entered into the psychic atmosphen' of the jjjroup.
The fact tlait he was unobserved (if lie was) would not exempt him
from such conta<rion.

“ The phenomena lie describes represent an evolutionary regres¬
sion, an escape from the human onto the animal levt'l. hiatiiijr ill-
smelling meat and heavy <lriukinif was appan'iitly part of the self¬
persuasion nect'ssary tV»r tin* lycaiithropie (‘limax. Besides the
purely sexual and sadistic motive's, the- cannibalistii* anel the necrei-
philie* instinct may be* divined behinei the' escape, bt'e-aiise* em the
animal le\e‘l no jiruilt is attae*h<‘d to satisfyinjr the'in. Tlie *vate*way
to the outpeair e>f the* ])rimitive une'emscieais was the Nan^a or witch
dextor in trance wlio ae*fe'el <'e>lle‘e*tively tor the f^reiup anel wheise
normal ofllee as witch doctor inve^te'el tlie* eeremeuiial with the* stamp
of legitimacy/'®

It is well known that the nioneitonons lu'atin^ of druias
can j)ro(lue(‘ a hypnotic* <*ne(*t, anil tins probably o(*(*urred in
the instance eiuoted above, A hypnotist (*ould. of course,
very easily induce* a hallucination or d(‘lusion of lycan-
thropical inctainorphosis in a suggestil)lc individual who
had b(*cn deeply hypnotis(‘d.

We now come to those actual psycholo^'ic^al aberrations
known as lynnithropy and zoanthropy respectively. The
terms are often confused : lycanthropy is ^retierally re¬
served for ceTtain d(‘lusions, b(*licfs or practices which
are not in tli(*niselvcs characteristic of insanity. Zoan¬
thropy, on the other hand, is the term applied to a form
of psychotic paranoia. Both forms of aberration arc
often accompanied by such degeneracies as (‘aiiuibalisnu
necrophilia (sexual assaults on corpses), sadism, zocrasty
(sexual relations with animals), a craving for raw flesh,
and heniothymia (f)athologieal excitement at the si^ht of
blood). Wliile the d(*lusions of zoanthropy arc easily
explained as the* product of nuMital derangements, lyean-
tJiropy often manifests itself as a form of hystcTia, and

• Author's italics.

* Fodor, Lycanthropy as a Psychic Mechanism ; .Journal of American

Folklore, Dec. p. :ilO.

Werk-Woi.ves and Ttgkr-Men

265

there is little doubt that hysterieal lyeanthropy was largely
r(‘sponsible lor the jKTpetuatioii of the were-wolf myth
ill Europe until after the turn of the eentury. Witeh-
craft, too, had many lyeanthropieal associations.

In th(' Malayan States lyeanthropy is often associated
with the phenomenon of latah. Latah is characterised by
Jiigh suggestibility ; it is a. hvstiTieal affliction similar to
the “ junijiing-disease observe^d at one time among the
woodnien of New England, E.S.A., in whi(*li the afflicted
individual makes violent movements and rapid ejacul¬
ations in iniitatiofi of th(‘ a(‘tions and words of other people.'

According to the well-known anthrojiologist, .1. H. Hutton,
it is <*onsidered a source of amusement t(» hypnotise a lad
subje<*t to lainh and suggest to him that h(‘ is a civet cat,
whereupon he runs around on all fours and endeavours
to devour liv(‘ chickens. Hysterical lyeanthropy. where
it still f)ceurs, may obviously be a source of danger; but,
being born mainly of suggestion and imitation, it is not
likely to occur wIutc the local |)opulation is not given to
lyeanthropieal beliefs.

In many jiarts of Europe mental derangenuiit was often
taken to bi* a sign of the were-wolf perhaps on acrount
of the animal-likc* groans and ululations to which some
psychotics give utterance. C'ertain unusual distinguishing
marks wer(‘ also regarded as peculiar to wer(‘-wo]ves : in
(Germany and Denmark, for examj)le. ey(*brows which
met across tlu* foreh(‘ad were a sign of being a were-wolf,
while in Cireeee th(* sanu- characteristic denoted a hrukolak
or vampire*. The belief in vampirism is merely a more
ghoulish variant of the more typi(*al lycanthropic beliefs.

In tiu* type of insanity known as /.oanthropical j)aranoia.
the .subject suffers the delusion that he* is an animal, some¬
times harmless but often very much the reverse. Paranoia
connotes systematis(*d delusions without serious impair¬
ment of the m(*ntal functions, and the cunning of certain
types t)f paranoiac is well known. If the delusion takes
the guise of a were-wolf or tiger and the* subject takes
to the woods or busli, h(* may constitute a serious menace
to anyom* passing in the vaeinity. Victims of attack by

* Webster's Internationat IHciionartf^ 2nd edition.

2(>r» Tm: Psyc iiolocv of rnK Otu ri/r

zoaiithroj)ical j)ar;iiu)iacs have been mauled and lorn and
partly devoured as it by a wild beast. Some zoaiithrop-
ical psyehoties have b(‘eu known to dress tht'inselves in
the skin of the beast they imagine thems<'lv(‘s to be and to
prowl around at night looking for vi(‘tiins. In some famous
Euro})ean eases of the past whole neighbourhoods havt*
bc('ii tt*rroris(Hl by such paranoiacs lor long periods.

Many zoanthro])ie paranoia<*s probably arriv(*d at thi*ir
degradc*d state through th(' eoniimied ast‘ of the ilrug bella¬
donna, much used in meclit^val tinu's as a witch’s salve
and as an aphrodisiac. Consistei\t use of solaiiaceous
drugs often leads to insanity characterised by zoaiithropieal
delusions and liallucinatioiis including the sensation of
having grown hair or feathers. Zoantliropieal psychosis
due to }>elladonna was probably confined to w'omen who eith<T
fancied thernselv(‘s as witches, or who wvrv th(‘ dupt's of
wdtchi^s who dispensed belladonna brews for love-philtres
and abortions. It is of interest to m)t(‘ that certain de¬
praved lycanthropieal practices liave Ix^en tradit i<>nally
associated with prcgnanl women.

In <*ontrast to violent lycaiithropi(‘al practices just des¬
cribed are the gentler ""tiger-men'’ of Assam and the north¬
ern reaclu's of tlie Chi mUvin in Hurma. Tliis region oT th<‘
world is tlie lycanthropologist’s jjaradise. lor here, if any¬
where, the tigcr-m(*ii (xhibit almost all gradations which
pertain to their calling. Here, too, ar(‘ authentic eases
of tiger-men dying wlien their animal-familiars are killed.

Many individuals of the tribes in this area show symptoms
of latent liysi.eria such as higli suggestibility, catalepsy
and h\ stero-epikpsy. Herbert Tiehy, a y<>**ng Austrian
geologist and explorer, recounts that ihvrc is a village near
the JIurnia-Assarn bordiT known as Tomati, wliieh can
only b(‘ reached by llat-bottomed boats. 'Hie inhabi¬
tants of this area, are hekl in considerable respect by neigh¬
bouring villages for they arc* credited with a great variety
of supernatural povv<*rs iueliiding an undoubted faculty
as hypnotists.*

The* tiger-men of this area are as far as could lie imagined
from the popular idea of a tiger-man. Instead of miir-

* Tihftnn Atlvndnr(\ ItKlS.

Wkhk-Woi.vks and Tkikk-Mex 2r>7

d<‘r()us savage* sadists or schizophrc'iiic [)araiioiac.>., we*
find a v(*ry differe^iit picture*. The* West African l(*opard-
man is a Icrocaons and sadistic individual whose* main
aim is te> indulge his penchant fe)r fiendish eru(‘lty among
his own people*. He flourishes in the* dreade*d secre*t soci-
ctic*s. The* Assam tiger-men, e>n the* e‘ontrary. often be¬
come tiger-men without having any coNscious choice* in
the matter, and are* sometime‘S unwilling. A native* will
perhaps amu)une*e‘ one me)rnitig that he has bee'ome a tiger-
man, wiili the result that from that day on he believes his
soul capable* of ente'ring into the body e)f a particular tiger.

Without going into the many ])syehole)gical factors
whicli e*e)ntribute‘ to sue*h sudele*n Ixliefs, we* can say that
from the* time his belief is firmly lixeel, the native's niinel
bee*ome,*s open to furtlu'r sugge‘stive influeeu'e s. His <*e>n-
victiem may result freun a minor hvst(Tie‘al e*risis or be* the
result of a vivid dream. Siue*e* birth his minel has be*e*n
steeped in lye*anthropie*al beliefs. rne'ons(‘ie)usly, perhaps,
h(^ has ye*arne(l for the* a(lde‘d |)reslige* aee*ruiTJg to those*
chosen by the geids to have* tigers as their familiars.

The sudden eoiiNietion may be regarded as a typie‘al
compeaisation re'aetion ofte*n found in eases ol‘ hyste*ria.
Usually, howf.‘veT, the* privilege is de*libe‘raU‘ly seuight fe>r
a juultitfide of rease)ns such as the* liope that it may ]>ro\ e*
ellicaeioiis in aehie\.ing revenge or in guarelifig the (*reeps.
The* Tamans of Hurma ))elie*ve* they e*an ae-hit ve* llieiv wish
by rolling in the e'arth wh(‘ri‘ a tiger has iniehirated. In
\Ve*st Africa the intimate* rehdion betwe*e*n man and animal
is broeiglil about by a blooel-bemd e*(‘remoi\y.

Amongst many primitive* ])eoples of the* wevrld is found
the belief in the transmigration of souls after <li*ath into
the boelie*s of aniriials. It is not a far cry freern this con-
ceptiem to the idea of the soul taking temporary possessieHi
of the* body of an animal during the indivieluars life-time,
whi(;h is the universal claim <»f the Uiirma-Assani lyeaei-
thropists. Some'tinie*s. we are* le>ld, the* se>nl of the* tiger-
man is away in tlie* body of a tige*r for as long as three days ;
during that time the* man nuiv aj)j)e*ar, in e‘\tre‘me (\ast*s,
waxe!n-e*e)loureul anel se*arc(*ly breathing. Even those with
l(‘ss te*nele'ney to naive ty than the ignorant and superslitienis

268

The PsYcnoiAXiY of the Occri/r

natives of those regions might well say that his soul had l(‘ft
his body.

In point of fact tlu* tiger-man is suffering from hystero-
catalepsy or else lias induced a eataleptie trano(‘ by some
jiroeess of autohypnosis. When the' man awakes from his
trance h(' believes that he has in fact been sharing the
body of a tiger. He will give graphic descriptions of his
adventures, how he hunted, mated, or killed and devoured
his prey. Sometinu's lu' reports that lu', i.('. tin* tiger,
has killed a man. Tichy tells the story of such a cas(‘
and quote's the tiger-man as saying that lie did not want
to kill the man ''Imt the tigt^r was too strong'’.

There is a were-wolf tradition in Kuroju' that during
the catulejitie trance the lirnlis of tlie subject twitch and
move as his wolf-familiar commits his de predations amongst
the (*attlc. Hutton points out that this form of lycan-
thropy is identical with that in Assam and records that
the body of the tiger-man may feid exhansti'd ami aches
as after violent exercise.

The more one investigates the typt' of lycantliropy under
di.scussion, tin* clearer it becomes that we are dc;aling not
with a single' phenomenon but with a variety of hysterical
manifestations centreing on lyeanthropieal ideas. In some
forms of hysteria hallucinations may occur and it is quite
possible' that some lyeanthropists hallueinate tlK)si‘ experi¬
ences which they subs(»quently relate'.

Catalepsy is a eonelition often assoeiated with hysteria.
In this eonelition the vital functions have seimedirnes been
reduexxl to a limit only just sullicie'nt to maintain the eon-
tinuanee eif life. There ne'cd not be total insensibility
but there* often is. Sometimes the patient utters wild
('xelamations or e?ven sings. Altheiugh unconseieius to out¬
side events his mind may be in full activity pursuing its
own trance fantasies. In the less extre'nu' state of cata¬
lepsy. muscular rigidity is absent and the patient retains
a considerable degree* of (‘onseiousness such as wc find in
some Eurojx'an and American traiuH* nuxliums. In such
cases the tendency to mental dissociation is iiu'ornplctc.

VVeuk-Wolvks and Ti(d:r-Mex

:H)U

Thr of th(‘ Assarn-Burina nirii is (*oiTi})arabl(‘ to

sonu‘ types of inediuDiistie trance. Hut instead of experienc¬
ing delusions or hallininations concerning “controls”,
“ guides " and otlu r inhabitants of the spiritualistic firiua-
inent, tlu* native ly(‘anthropist is concerned with the adven¬
tures of his trance-life as a tiger. If Professor Flournoy’s
famous mcdijjm, Helciu* Smith, had been subjected to
lyeanthropie instead of romantic and spiritualistic ideas,
her Martian longue might W(‘ll hax e become tlu* growl of a.
tiger or the eaekl(‘ of a hyena !

Finally w(' come to the most interesting of all lyeanthropie
phenonu'na the <teath of the lyeanthrojnst following the
killing of his animal-familiar. Contrary to general belief,
this is not altog(‘th(T a myth. The effects of suggi'stion can
by very great on a primitive and (*redulous mind subject to,
hysteria ; and, as w(‘ have seen, the lyeanthropie trance is
])rimarily a hyste rical disorder.

The belief that when a maiTs animal-familiar dies he also
dies is found wherever ly(‘anthropieal )>eliefs exist in Africa,
in Asia, and in Europe' where the were-wolf flourished. For
example, a wolf or a tig(T is shot through the head, and in
the morning it is reported that a man, well kmnvn as having
the pow'er to transform himself into a be ast, is found dead in
his hut, with an identical wound in his head. In eases
where lyeanthropists and zoanthropies wear animal skins
with the head of an animal still attached and worn above
the wearer’s own, liki* Sigmund the Volsung or the old
Scandinavian berserkiTS, it is easy to see how' such stories
arose.

Rut another way in which the myth may partly have been
perpetuated is by the sclf-inllietion of wounds afl(‘r the man
had learned of the death of the particular animal with w^hich
he felt hims('lf deeply associated—particularly in the ease of
lyeanthropists subject to hystcro-cpilcptoid attacks.

In Assam and Northern Burma the tiger-man usually
comes to identify himself with a particular tiger in the vicin¬
ity. We may take it for granted that the delusion of identi¬
fication often becomes a very vivid one in the subject’s
normal waking state ; its vividness and reality is inextricably

‘270

Tuv. Psvriioi.(K;Y or tuk OiviM/r

bound up with the mental attitude of th(‘ tribe towards such
things. His belief thnt the death of his tiger must be followed
by his own is part and parcel of his mental background,
fixed ineradieably in his mind by centuries of tribal supersti¬
tion. 11 is beliel' fosters tiu‘ form that his delusions and
iiallueinations take. The identifieation-dehision may even
become the dominating feature of his lift*; with the result
that wlien he learns of his animal-familiar’s death the beli(*f
that he will not outliA c it acts with all the force of a powerful
suggestion, he loses the will to live, and death results.

The fact that death or illness does not follow until tin*
tiger-man has learned of the death of his supposed familiar
is (confirmed from se veral reliable* soure*e*s. Here is an
accouTd by ('. P. Mills taken from an artie'le* entille‘d “ The
VVeTe-TigeTs eif the Assam Hills '' : ’

“ It slic»ul<t Ih’ uridf r.'.lood tlial I Ik wound on tlie* liuinan tiody
<l()(*s not iip|)?*ar sinniltaneoiisly with tliat inflicte‘d on tlic animal,
Init some djiy«. hitcr, wlc'ii fin* injm lias I<‘arnl of tin* (*ondition of
liis leopard or Tins point is illustrated hv an in<*idcnt wliicli

occurrcil in Marcli, 191P, and of >vhieli I Jicard immediately after-
warels,

VVliiU* Mr. Hutton WiK in e*arnp at a village e*alle(l Melenni, one
of his Anejimi interpreters while wandering round with a Kim med
a larK(* He fin'd and wounded the animd, hiltiuK it. rather

far l):i<*k. The beast eof away, how'e\(*r. It was saiil, more in
jest than in earnest Unit the tiLU'r \yi\< r(*ally a nian-tiKCr. This
eaiiK' to thf? ears iff Saiyi of Zumethi, a snbordmate in the Civil
Works Department, but a tiKer-man withal. He announe(*d to his
friends that his ti^er had been wounded, and took to Jiis hed. Three
days later he was met by Xihu, head interpreter of Kohima, bein^
(tarried into KoJiima on a streteher for trealm«*nt in the Covernmeni
hospital. Nihu, who is a mt>sl intelligent and entirely reliable man,
told me that lu^ (piestioned and examined Saiyi, w’Jio said that hf*
was suffering lerrilile pains in the abdomen owin;* to the wound
inflicted on his tijjer, and showed an inflamed sw'f'lline on cither-
side of th(^ stomairh, corresponding?, of course, to the entrances and
exit iioles of the bullet, which had hit tin* tiger. Me eventually
died in Kohima hospital.”

The case just cited is iut(‘rcsting for several r<*asons. It
provides confirmatory evidt'iice that modifications of the
vasomotor system can be induced by suggestion ; a possibility

Jonrii. S.IMI.., XX, i9:^‘J, ]>. :W7, See also Itoth, \V K., Xorth
Queensland Ethnography, Hulletin So. 5, p. .‘Ml.

\VKt!K-\Vni.vi-.S ,\XU 'r\(;Klt-MKN ‘271

by whit'll Iiiiiiiy scc'k to account tor the phcnoiiicnon of
rt'lifrious stiyniatisation. Such an explanation of stories
where a lyeanthropist is reported to have manifested the
same wounds as those inflielttd on his animal-taniiliar is one
which would account for a great deal not untlerstood hitherto.
Hut even if auttisuggesiion ai.d lustiria cannot produce
p.syeho.somatie lesions or swellings, they (juite certainly can
induce hallucinatory sensations of extreme jiain (topoalgia).
The appearance of topoalgi<‘ pain in hysterical disorders is
not uneonnnon. \^'e may suspect tlial wliere lyeanthropical
delusions have a liysterieal basis, the wounding or killing
of an animal-familiar would not infre(|uentlv result in
to|K)algie pains in those parts of the body corresponding to
l!i(> positions of the wounds.

Tile lyeantlirojiist s beliefs are in themsi'lves a jiowerful
suggestive influence. Where hysteria is preseid or latent,
suggestibility is thereby greatly increased. Death by
suggestion is known to have been a weapon of primitive
witch-doctors u}) to the present day. particularly among the
Australian aboriginees and. until the last century, among
the Maoris of New Zealand. When the suggestion becomes
firmly embed<led in the mind of a sujierstitious native that,
he will die. die he may. Death may take from a few days
to a few weeks or longer, but ea.si'S have been reliably reiiorted
where it has re.sulteil within twenty-four hours.

W. K. Hoth, an anthrofiologist. has termed this fatal form
of autosuggestion thaiiafomanm. (not to be confused with
Uiariatmmnia meaning a neundie obsession for atti'iiding
funerals and tlu' like). Thanatomania undoubtedly provides
a possible* explanation of those tales in wdiieh the death of
the animal-familiar is followed by the death of the lyean¬
thropist him.self. Iti this respi-et at least the ancient were¬
wolf and tiger-man li'gx nds may not ha\e strayed very far
from the truth.

Chapter Sirteefi

THE OIUESTAL TyAl MATlRCISTS

DKHVlSflKS A\l» FaKIKS

JFrom tjik Fast talrs still iwr'iw oi‘ burials ali\c, s('lf-
torturc and trials of <'n<luriiiic*i‘ orde als which an* n^ported
to result in no ptTinancnt harm to the imlividnals eon(*erned.
The Moslem dennsh, the Siberian shatnnn, th(‘ lluidu fakir,
the Indian yogi, the Tibetan lama all, in tluir diHercnt
fashion, continue to excite th<‘ wonder of a naturally agnostic
West. Despite many trustw(»rlhv eye-witness accounts
and good photographic <‘vidence, Ihen^ is still consid(Table
scepticism concerning many of the feats of these oriental
thaumaturgists which it not alwavs justifi(‘d.

Di rvish is a Persian word signifying “ beggar Usually
it denotes a religious mendicant. The dervishes have many
sects and orders within the Moslem religion. In Arabic-
speaking countries, however, outside of Persia and Turkey,
they an^ known as faqirs. The \i T\\\ fakir has also coitjc to
be applied to Hindu religious mendicants in India.

Although dervislufs and fakirs originat(‘d in strict religious
and monastic orders- much the same as Kuropean orders
in tlie Middle Ages—disci])line often broke down and mendi¬
cancy became a cloak for extortion and for th(‘ prctcnct^
of occult powers. If is principally this type of “ holy-man ”
who gives wonder-working displays based on conjuring and
trickery.

The itinerant fakir is frequently a clever trickster living
on his wdts. Apart from feats of prestidigitation, some of
them undoubtedly excel in the art of inducing delusions
and hallucinations by their skill in the use of hypnotism

Dervishes and Fakirs

278

and suggestion. Their reputation as inagieiaiis is usually
turned to good advantag(‘ through the sale ol* Iove-i>hiltres
and quaek nvedieines.

Other itiiK rant fakirs and de rvishes are genuine in their
claims and helied's, and some nndouht(*dly warrant the title
of "‘holy-man” traditionally giveMi to thean. Extremists
are to be found in all types of religion, liowev(T, and there
are many sects in the* East whi(*h ])raetise extreme asceticism,
self-mutilation, and endurt* tlie most agonising tortures, to
(‘arn a place \n paradis(‘. S(»m(‘ of tliem endure their pain
by practis(‘(l (dfort of th(‘ will. Others aehitA^* a state of
contemplative dissociation a?id an* oblivious to the outside
world. Vet otlicTS app(‘ar to achievt* conditions analogous
to scliizophrenia and involutional nK*lan(‘holia, and perhaps
have actually ri'ached those j)s\ah(dic stab^s. In catatonic
schizophrenia, for (‘xarnpU*, we obstTvt' a j)aralli*l to the
ininiobilc eonteinjdativt* of the orient who has forgotten the
exist(‘nce of the world around him. Others of these mystics
an* probably liable to either funetional or hyst<Tieal analgesia
in which sensitivity to |)ain disappears.

Amongst these less extr(‘m(‘ ascetics are those fakirs who
preserve* th<dr mental baiance while at tin* same* time practis¬
ing painful self-eastigation in a minor way. These may be
seen in India, sitting or reclining on a bed of blunted nails,
reading out tlieir prayers. The nails an* not sharp enough
to penetrate the skin but sharp i*noiigli to cause severe pain
to anyone who is unaecustcmied to tJic practice. Most of
these fakirs, liowevcr, wear a thick, twisted loin-eioth to
help mitigate their discomfort.

Amongst the Moslem dervish sects, two in particular
have gained for th(‘ms<*lves great notoriety outside Moslem
countries. Th(*s(‘ an* the ^ whirling dervishes ”, the Maw-
lawis, wdio whirl themselves round and round until they reach
a state of hysterical trance ; and the “ howding dervishes ”,
the llifa’is, who induce in themselves a state of frenzied
ecstasy.

The j)lienomenon of ecstasy is to be found in many parts
of the world and is cultivated by shamans and medicine-men
from the Arctic to Australasia. The well-known Dionysiae
frenzy, cultivated by the devotees of the cult of the god
Dionysus in ancient Thrace, provides what is probably the

271

Tin : Psvt'iioLocjY of tiik ()(’(’ri.T

earlic^st n'cordrd version of ecstasy similar to that of thc‘
dervishes. Tliere is little doubt that the Dionysiae frenzy
and similar forms of (‘cstasy ” were liystero-epilc'ptoid in
eharaet(T. Such ecstatic states manifest lhcmsclv(‘s in
rigidity of th(‘ body, contortions, tnanors, frothing at the
mouth and av(‘ often accompanied by visual ami auditory
hallucinatiiuis and extream* euphoria. The hallu<*inations
and the euph(»ria i)rovide the component d' visions ami
exaltation, which in Thrace used to take tlu* form of mystic'al
union with the god and which in late r times was followed l)y
Avild sexual f)rgi('s. llic soul of th(‘ (‘csfatic was suppostul
to leave the worsliipjxr's body aful hold eimimunion with
distant gods and daemons.

This forj)) of ( (‘stasy must not 1 h‘ eoiifuseil with the (‘cstasy
of tile e()nt(*mplati\'e mystics afid with tliat (‘laiined by tlu*
adherents to yoga pra(‘tie('s. In both types of (‘cstasy,
how(‘ver, tlu* int(‘nse feedings e>f elatie)n, bliss ami exaltatie)n
are* primarily pathole)gie*al or hysterie*al \n e*haraeter ; aj)art
fre»m liyste'ries and mystics they arc fonml most commonly
in senne tvjies eif scbi7.e)]diYenia, and evccas\v\nivlly in general
paralysis e)f the insane* which is lirought about by syjihilis.

An;e>ngst the* ele*rvishcs (*cstasy is soni(*time‘s accompanied
by fune*tie)nal analgesia, tlieaigh not (as some have* surmised)
by ])sychosomatic mexlitications of tlu* l)e)dily tissues to
injury. In this state*, whieli they consider to be a sign of
divine afflatus, they gash themse?lv(*s Avith kniv(*s, handle
red'lud irons, d(*vemr snakes, eat glass and purportexlly
devour live coals.

It must be admitted that Rifa’i practices have not been
tlioroughly investigated. While most obstTvers agree* that
the gashes they inflict e>n thcmselve*s eluring their state eif
hyst(‘rieal ee*stasy stop blee*ding in a remarkably short time
and that the same psyehose)matic factors may \ve*U re‘sult
in tlu* supfiression of blisters caused by haneJling re^l-hot
irons, it is not ceTtain to w^hat cxiemt trie?ke*ry and le*gt*rele‘main
may l)c held to account fejr some of their feats. The feat
of swalIe)Aving live coals, einc imagines, is me*rely tlie result of
prestidigitation. N<rvcrthel(*ss, it is curious to note that a
numbe r of Russian and English authors have* note*eI almost
identical feats amongst the Siberian shamans. In some
parts of Siberia the shaman induces a state of ecstasy ident ical

DervishKS and Fakitis

275

with that of the Uifa’i dervishes. In other parts the “ ecr
stasy ” becomes anything but ecstatic and is more reminiscent
of demoniacal hysteria or the “ possession ” of the Middle
Ages.

Oriental practices involving self-mutilation during hysteri¬
cal states of consciousness lind a parallel in the hysterical
llagcfllantism of njcdieval Europe, in which monks, nuns and
many others whipped th(‘ms(^lvcs till the blood flowed ‘‘for
the greater glory of (hui Mass hysterical llag(‘llaiitism
often rcaclii'd extraordinary jroporlions and many w'ho
practised it told of the “ divine ” ecstasy which accompanied
th(‘ pain.

A sub-se(*l of th(‘ Rifa'is, the Sa'dis, used to practise the
Dasrh, in which the h(‘ad of* tlu‘ ordvr rode his (?hariot over
the bodies of his (Urvislics in Cairo without causing them
injury. Such feats can he attained by traiinng and practise.
On account of this and other similar practices, however,
they claiuK'd immunity to injury and miraculous liealing
p<\\vcrs. V. (4. Rclc mcutuuis a similar feat in one of lus
books on yoga : ‘ “ Some youths pirform the daring feat
of allowing a loaded cart to pass over their chests W'ithout
suflVring any injury or having th(*ir ribs broken Rele
accounts for this ability by accrediting it to jmuiayama, the
yogie jiractice of lireath-control a(*liieved by ardous res¬
piratory cX(Tcises often accompanied by gymnastic and even
acrobatic bodily postures. The lungs and reh^vant muscles
thus strengthened wwild give the support which tlu* chest
and ribs r<‘quired to withstand the weight of the loaded cart.

Some of th(* practices of tlu‘ Rifa’is are even more extreme
than those just, mentioned. Hysterical analgesia, or in-
sensitiveness to pain, is not altogether an uncommon pheno¬
menon. Similarly, profound analgesia can often be induced
by hypnotic suggestion, or spontaneously through many of
the rites and ceremonies of primitive peoples by i)sycholog-
ical processes analogous to hysteria or autohypnosis.'^ This
aj)j)ears to have reached a practised art among certain of the
Rifa’i. Professor Seliginan writes in this connection :

‘ The Myslerions KtanlaUni, p. 9 .

27(5

ThK PSYCnt)l-<KJY OF THE OcCt’I.T

“ Apiirt from the ccroiuonios of some Nortli American Indians
(now extinct), desijrned as tests of endurance so that anaesthesia
was scarcely d(‘sired, the most astounding examples of what in
Europ<‘ would he ealh'd self-torture, is })r(>vide<l by Indian members
of tlie Itifa'i sect c»f Dt^rvislies. In ItK'Jl Dr. irurit (‘xhibited at tlic*
Iloyal AnthropoIo<,d(‘al Institute |>hot<»^raf)iis and cinema tilms of
men thrustin<f lon^ iron skewers tJiroujjh tlu* neck betMcen tlie
jjrullet and t)ie backbone, c»f dislocation of the eyeball outwards- it
mi(jJ»t almost b<* said on to the cheek—and of tlie hainmerinj^ of a
ver\' )u‘a\y ball-}iead<‘d metal s[)ike into tin* top of tin' skull, the
spike in some instane<‘s beinir fixc'd so firmly that it was diilicult t<»
withdraw. In all these cases there was preliminary ecstatic daneine:
at the tomb of the holy man, the founder of Iheir st‘et in India, after
<lays of fastin<T and spiritual pn-paration ; i‘ven then the subject
would srunefimes refuse- an exhibition on tlie around that at that
time he did not feel capable fif it."*

AVhilc fund ioiijil nnnl^esia may be the (‘xplanaiion of such
feats, this d()(‘S not explain the observed a(‘e(Oeration of the
h(‘aling proec‘Sses. It is jiossible that the same psyelu^logieal
processes which induce the functional analg(*sia may result
in indirect psychosomatic* rtaedions eonducive to the re¬
latively rapid healing of tin* wounds.

Wliilc many of tJu* dervishes’ ptTformances are attributable
to abnormal psychological factors, it. is well known that
they are oft(a) addicted to the smoking or eating of hashisJi.
Many- of their ecstatic! frenzies an* certainly aidi*d by taking
hashish before the jx'rforrnance, and it may w^ell prove that
the consumption of hasliish nearly always precedes certain
dervish riltials. Hashish may also help to mitigate*
haemorrhage from newly' ififlieted wounds; it posst*sses,
moreover, certain anaesthetie properties. So d«)(*s opium,
owing to its morphine content, and many dervish [)ractie(*s
may make use of this drug as well.

Other dervishes and fakirs who pracitise thrusting metal
skewers through their fl(\sh lack the benefits brought about
by hysteria or autohypnotic states. Paul Jiviiz6 has
probably investigated this problem more thoroughly than
anyone else. In his book Fakirs^ Fumistes et Cie^ he discusses
the claims of itinerant fakirs and points out that such feats
as sticking metal spikes through the flesh is simply an

* Selij^man, C. G., Ritual and Medicine, Enquiry into the Unknown,
p. 57.

Y()(;a

277

acquir(‘d tric^k, not unbearably painful, which can be learnt
by anyoiu^ of quite average patience and fortitude, ircir/e
hiniseif performed the trick of sticking hat-pins through his
own Hesh.

On December 11th 1928, the celebrated ‘‘ duel ” took place
betw(‘en Paul Uvuzv and Talira Ihy, the Kgyi)tiau fakir,
at the former’s instigation. Tahra Bey, before a huge
audience in the Cirque de Paris, thrust long needles tlirough
his i‘he(‘ks and ch(‘st muscles, plunged a thin stiletto into
his neck, lay down supported only by two steel bla(l(‘S at
liis neck and ankles, and finally strippe^d himself and r(‘e)ined
on a l)ed of nails. He showed little e\id(‘nce of bl(‘eding.
He then invit(‘d Heuze to repeat th(‘ j)erformanee. llcaj//;
contented hiniseif by thrusting a medic through his cheek
and (‘xplained to the audience that Tahra Bey’s doughtier
deeds W(‘re simjily a question of practise and training. The
crowd howl(*d for him to justify his remarks by lying down on
the bed of nails. M(‘anwhil(\ a French conjuror, who called
himself ‘ Karma*, and who had entered the cont(*st ^'irtually
at th • last minute, ent<*r<‘d the anaia and re])(‘ated Tahra
Ih-y's net with tlie s1(‘<‘I blades and the bed of nails, and
deelan'd fh(‘r<‘ was nothing mystirious about tint tri(‘k.

'rile eommittee of doctors and seiiailists pr(‘S(‘nt declared
their opinion tliat the fakir had shown eonsidiralile courage
but liad demonstrated nothing beyond the limits of normal
experience.

Vo(;a

Tahra Bey’s claims to occult powers were men' showman¬
ship and his tours of Kurope ami America whtc spectacularly
successful. He was, of course, no fakir, in any jmipi r sense
of the word, yet it is not to be doubted that he had, as he
claimed, mastered a number of Yoga jiractices iiu'luding
unusual voluntary control of certain physiological functions
of the l)ody ; to wliat extent, however, is diirKuilt to d('cide,
sinct' any ability he had in this direction was certainly
augnient(*d by many of the devices of tlie conjuror.

Contrary to poj)ular belief, the practice of yoga, is not

278

Tin: PsY( IIOT.OGY OF TIIF 0(TTTI/r

supposed to eouf(T occult powers on the individual eoneerned-
K. T. Uehanaii, an Aineriefin East-Indian who investigated
yoga with the aid of a grant from an American University,
and whose tliesis on the subject gained him a doctor's
degree,’ describes tlie yogis as sound, sensible men with
poise and insight, radiating a quiet power, with a capacity
for enjoyment and humour. Yoga is, in fact, one of the six
classical systems of philosopliy stemming from the Upani-
shadic teachings of ancient India. It practises a psycho¬
logical, moral and physical system of training designed to
emancipate tlie individual from the needs, wants arul d(‘sires
which are th(‘ lot of the average man, and to dtveloj)
:*ertain unusual states of eonscicaisness.

The word means litiTaily ‘‘ to yok(‘ ” (i.e. the in¬

dividual soul, or Atman, with the world soul, or Brahman).
The yogi neojdiyte undertak(‘s a long s(Ti(‘s of graduat<'d
mental, physical and respiratory exercises designed on th(‘
assumption that by such means the mind can b(‘ made to
function at far higher than the normal levels ; tlu* attainnuait
of spiritual jmrity and sujireme mystical (XjKTience is the
ultimate aim.

There are probably about a dozi ii types of yoga j)ra.etiet‘s
and Vieliefs, the best known of which ar(‘ Rajah Yoga, Hatha
Y^oga and Rliakti Y’^oga, which lay the chie f emphasis respec*-
tiv(‘ly on the principle s of the* Will, (‘e)urage* anel Ive)ve*. It is
the Hatlia Y’^e)gis whe) have at tracteal the attention e)f the
sensatiejii-liungry W(‘st threnigh their extre ine* jdiwsical con¬
tortions anel strange aeTeibatie. pe)stures.

Rajah Yo^a is the me)st universally respeeleel owing to the
dt'pth e>f its j)hile)se)phy and the e>bvie)us se)undne*ss e>f many
of its practices. Its philose)phy stems from the e)ldest of
all Indian philose)phical syste^ms—that kne)wn as Sankhya -
and has eve)lved a branei e>f religious me taphysics greatly
superior in some ways to that of any other f)f the worleTs
great religieais.

TheTc is wide spread })elief in the occult j)owcrs of the* yogi,
'i'his belief is unfounded, as a study of the genuine litiTature
of the subject will show. Telepathy, levitatie)ns, the* lifting
e)f massive objects, and the ability to move long distances

' {{(‘lianaii, K. T., Yoga: J Scientific Evaluation.

Yoga

270

in a few seconds and other occMilt powers (the siddhis) are
mentioned in the yog^a manuals only to warn the* student of
ihear danglers and to direct him to avoid them at all cost.

Hehanan who liimsc^lf und«‘rlook a part of the yogic
training in India, disparages any notion that the yogis have
u(‘eult powers or that llie yogi.', tluinselves take* them very
st‘rie)usly. It is the* fakir, .se)me‘limes an e\-ye)ga student
wile) has faiU‘el te) e*e)mple*te the areloiis training, whe) e*laims
e)e*e‘ult anel magie‘al poweTs. The true* ye)gi is not inleresteel
in sue*h epie stie)ns. Jlis manuals tell him te) re garei any eieeult
manife*statie)ns in himself as an e)l)staele whie*h will preve*nt
liini attaining the* mystie*al Ixaivalijd linal and e*e)mpletc
liheTatie)!) fre)m the he)nels e)f the Iksli. That a e*onside‘rable
niimhe r e»f yogis have fallen hy the wayside " threiugh
the* elise*ov(Ty e)f liypnejtie povve*rs is e lear. The e)lele‘r ye)ga
manuals woulel naturally e‘lassifv hvpne»tisni as a snpe*rnatural
inanir(*statie)n.

'rile aim of all yoga training is te) ae*hieve a fusie)n e>f the
ineli\ ielnal .soul with Reality or \Ve>rlel-Soul. In Rajah Yeiga
lliis is (‘arrienl out hy a long and elitVieaiU process of training.
Se Ne ral stages are involveel : (1) Dillieult anel sonu tim.es

seani-ae'rohatie* nu'elitalive pe)sture‘s ((isa)ias) are aelopled.
(2) A e*oniplieate‘el hre'athing exercise*, ofteai varied, is peT-
IVM’meel. (.*5) 'Fhe traiiu'e, having maslere‘el thesr Iheai learns
the ,s])ee*ialise(l mental < \ere*ise‘s. These* e'omprist* :

(a) Praiffahara e)r s( n.se*-withdrawal ; the* ye)ga learns
to re strain the fle)w e)f e*\ternal sense*-im|)re‘ssie)ns to
his mind.

(h) I)harand or ri}]icrn\ri\\'nm ; not the* we ste rn e ejuivalent
e>f e*e)nee*ntralion. The linal phase in tliis state is
re'iulering the mind a blank. 'Fhouglil has e*easexl
anel e)ne-pe)inte*el *’ e’e)ntemplatie>n e)f an ol)je‘el is at
last impe).ssible.

(e-) Dhtfdnd or e’e)nte*mpla.tion ; the ye>gi be*gins to “ per¬
ceive* ne*w anel subtle aspe'cts of the e)bie‘e*ts e)f his
e*e)nte*mplatie)n.

(el) Sd)}iadhi or trance ; the d(*sirc of all yogis is te) reach
this stage*. Many fail. There are live stages e)f this
trane'c aeeoreling to the manuals and the* tinal stage?
is that of Kdivdlifd or teital liberation.

280

TiiK P.sycii()i.(>(;y ov tuk OtiiM/v

The above is, v(Ty briefly, the roii^^h ^ist of Rajah Yoga
praetie(‘. Iii the final stages of Smnadhi the yogi elainis
that pereej)tion beeoines siiper-eonscnous ”, Iranseending
spaee and time; a stage of bliss is reached and evenliially
surpassed as the Truth dawns and his real-s(‘lf nuTges with
the Idtiinatt* Reality.

The Yoga tranca*, lik(‘ the trances of many mys1i(*s, is
iindoubt(‘dly a soure(‘ of great happiness and inspiration.
Its psyehialrie interpre-tation. however, sheds a ray of
disillusion o\rr tlu* whole subject. The trance' is almost
eertaiiily in most instan(‘<*s the j>?‘oduet of autohypnosis.
In a few (*ast‘s a te'clmiepK* of very rapid hre alhing may result
in a eatale])tie trance through tho exhaustie)r) of the* CO'
content in tlie f>lood (as sennetini(‘s oe*enrs ifi liysleria).
OtluTwise no partieadar im)>e>rtane‘e (*an be^ attaelieci te) tlu‘
aerobatic j)ostures and s])e‘(‘ial breatliing tee'hniipies in th(‘
induetiem of tin* trance*; tlie‘y teae*h the* yogi e*ontrol of tlie*
will anel the* bealy and no mena*.

Nor is the claim tlia1 yoga ])raeiiee*s heighte*n the* nK‘!\taI
powe-rs te) lie coiisiele red se‘rie)usly ; Re*hanan. who wa^ syni-
patlietie* te)\vards (Ik' |)raetie*e* of ye)ga. c’ame* to tin* e*oreelusion
that the* enislanght of trane*e* brirjgs about a rrUtrdfition of
the* nn*nta! I'unetions. Aee*e)rding te) the* same* authe)rit\
tile rate* e)r breathing during trane*e‘ elejes ne)t diller greatly
from the* ne)rnial,

“ Ilypneisis ", writes Ih'lianan. e*e)m[)rise*s \arious stage*s
ranging frenn mild elre)wsine*ss te) de*ep trarie-e*. \'e)ga, like*-
wise*, has its graelatie)ns e)f e‘\|)<*ri<*ne*t*." H(*hanaTi also
points e)ut the* similarity of hyj)ne)sis and the* yoga lrane*e* :

“ T]i(‘re* is eni* fcaleire* wleie-h is strikingly eMimiiiem to holh hyfnieisis
and yoji^a. It is we ll known Meal iiypnej^is e-aei Ik* iniliie'eMl hy staring
st(*aelily at an ohje-ed or hy 1 kinking e-xclijsivedy e>r e)ne‘ ide-a. This
jiie)ne»iei<*isin ktis its ))aralie'i in yeiga eliiring th‘* ineelitative* |>e*riod
wke-ii the ye>gi!i aims l.(» e*liniiiiatc‘ rroin the* mind e‘vcrylking hnt. the*
thought of'the* mineite* e)hje‘ct e>f (•e)ne‘cnt rat ie»n.'*'

It is througli a jiroeess of autohypnotisation .and auto¬
suggestion that the ye)gi attains his euphorie* tranev. The^
eu])hori.‘i anel delusions eif significance* which it brings are

* Yog/'/, .1 Srirttfifir Uvahifitinn, p.

YofiA

281

reinenibercd by the yogi as a blissful though transitory
experience wliic^h makes him long to repeat it. *

Th(‘ rnytli thjit certain yogis can levitate their bodies into
the air by magical means is pr(‘valent in the Kast. Itinerant
fakirs (often styling themselves yogin) still perpetuate this
l)eli(‘f by using a simple trick whi(*h was first introduced to
Kuroj)e by the oriental magician lang Lau Lauro in 1826.
In it a man sat cross-legged suspend(‘d several feet in th(^ air.
Tht^ fingers of liis outstretched arm rested lightly upon a
bamboo rod. The cfTect was impressive. The secret of
the trick was that insid(‘ the bamboo ran an iron bar bent at
right angl(‘s at the top. Attaclu'd to this was a rm^tal bracket
to support th(‘ magiciairs Ixaly. The metal suj)port and th(‘
horizontal iron stay wert‘ cov(Ted by the (*lothes and the
sha ves (»f tin* magician.

In tills trick tlie actual preparations art' always eari'fully
scrt'cned. since oftt'ii (when no other method is rt adily avail¬
able) a de<‘j) hole has to be dug to hold th(' base of lht‘ bamtioo-
eoN'cred iron rod. T)it‘ famous Krt'neli (‘onjuror Hobert-
Ilondin imjirox'ed on this trick and tirst demonstraltd his
own version of it on the stagt* in ItSP.K In .lun<‘ the

Illustratt'd London N(‘ws ])ublish(*d idiotographs taken in
India of a fakir carrying out tlu* h'vitation at‘t. Xet'diess
to say a fold of cloth drapt'd tht* outstretclu'd arm.

Some of the yogis more extreme claims e.g. to be able to
control functions of the body normally controlled by the
antonomit' nervous system ar(‘ unlikely from the medical
standptant, and arc probatily mere exaggeratitins due to the
air (»f mystery whi(*h has traditionally surrounded tlic cult
of y«)ga. Some yoga tenets, however, bear an astonishing
n semblance to those advocated by a numlxT of Kuropean
and American psycliiatrists. Henr are two ])aragraj)hs by
Sir William IiiX)wn wJiich might w^ell havt^ come from a yoga
manual translated into a modern idiom.

“ Yrni can gain power over involuntary in incIcs, stomach, lioart,
or wliatt'vcr it may l)c. I believe that, wc can gi't more and more
power, throngli oiir sympathetic nervous system, over the different
parts of our body, if in iMrni'st about it, and if we carry out a certain

■ Sec chaptm- i:{.

*282

Tin: I\sY('iu>i,()(;v of tiii: Oicui/r

uinoinil <)i‘s(*lf-trjiinin^. ^^MI <*;in only ronvintn* y(Mirsclf of lliis l)y
<ioin«» it Tor yoiirscir.

Tliis is not hypnot ism, hut a uniuiiu* (l(‘V(*lo])iiK‘nt and increase
of the po>\Tr of fiio will ovtT tJu* body. Oiu* can ifilhicncc one's
own digestion, Ji«*art-hcat, flic proc<*sscs of (‘liminal ion, and the
^rcucral functions of almost every part of the body by resolution
and calm deti rmination. Tlie important fhiinj; is to avoid spasmotlw*
effort, to tj(*t muscular and mental relaxation ; to imagine sueeivss
with calm certainty, and thtai to allirm it with conviction/’*

H(‘huitaii dcscrilics how th<‘ Ihijah yo^is Icurn to opcMi utul
close the Jiiial sjihiiieters al will, and hy exiTcisino th(‘ luuseles
of the Ik Hv ar(‘ able to draw water in and out for the jiiirpose
of eolonie lavage. Cleansing of the bladdia* by similar nu'atis
is also j)raetis(‘d. The more extreme (‘laims of sonu^ of the
yo|ris is a disputed miitter. TIkw claim to be abl<‘ to di-
synehronise tluar jnilse and iveii to stop tlu* pnls(‘-beal
alto/^etluT. Ilel(* ^dves an account of a Hatha yoj^i named
Dtvslibandhu who (i(*nionstrated th(‘ f(‘at of di-syn(*hronisation
of th(‘ pulse and who later demonstrat(‘d tlu' [lartial stoppitij^
of tlie Ji(*art-beats under an X-ray ser(‘en :

His heart was first, (‘xamiiicd und<‘r normal conditions and
the |)oint of its apc\-bcat was marked on the scrt‘<*n. He was I lien
asked to breathe d(‘(*p in and out, and a^^ain the* ap*\-beal. was
mark<*d o/i 1 lie screen. \\'<‘fouiifl that, after (‘acli coinpictt' inspira¬
tion his apex-b(‘at was about half an inch intmiial to it> normal
position. Then he was asked to stop the beating of tic* Icairt. Jfis
licart, tliereupon, (‘ontracted and bei'ana* smaller and smaller in
size until it n'aehed a minimum limit wh(*n its apex was about two-
thirds of an iic‘h intc'riial to its normal position. 'rh(‘ apex-beat
of the heart became inaudible, fhoiiuh tin* rhythmic coiitraetion of
the heart-muscle still persisted. A irraphii'al represiaitafion of his
pulse and heart corroborated the facts mentioned above. Tin*
e.ar<lio»:ram showed that the heart-imiseh* was rJiytlimieallv <on-
tractine: sixty times a minute thou;>h its iH-atinj^ was inaudible.”*

I'iifortunjitely n full d(*seriptioii is lacking aud wc eaimol
say whether l)<‘shbaridhu inducted a momentarily eatalejdic
state or not or how accurate Hole’s account is.

> Mitni, Mnliruic ami Mriaphifsics, p.
* Heic, V. oj). cit.

Hukiai« Alivk

2H3

BuitrAL Aijvk

In rxtrnnc catalc'psy, as is well known, t.h<t vital funelions
may he nxlueed to a iniriimiirn eonsonant with the inaintxiii-
ariee of life. t’tTtain yogis and sadhuH (ase(rties) claim to
h<* able to induce this (•ataleptie state at will for the j)urpose
of imm\iring lliemselves in a eoHin und<Tground.

Talira Bey regularly demonstrated the featof Ix^ng l)uried
in a (!oHiri underground, and tin* redouhtahl<‘ Frenchman
Heuz(5 repeated the hat. n^rnaining immured for an hour ;
he d(Mlan‘d afterwards that there w'as nothing mysterious
about, it and that no state of trance? was n(*c(‘ssary.

Tahra Bey, on the other haiul, stated that a trance tcy/.v
n(‘c<‘ssarv, and that he indiieexl it by ““ re^ducing the? h<?art-
be?ats to a. minimum ”, pressing on ceTtain n(T\(-ce ntres
e)n tile head and n(?ck, throwing liack tlie^ he^ad and re tract-
ing the‘ tongue back into the* tliroat. The* <*utting of the?
air suf)ply in this way, he <*xplained, re?sulted in a catalep¬
tic trance? so (‘xtreine as to constitute a state of sus-
p<?ndexl animation. All br(?athing, he* (*laim(‘d, ce‘as(‘d. It
was his custom to stutf liis nose and (‘ars with cotton ; and
it was observed that his body was dry upe)n eme‘rge*n(‘e.
This fact convinced many of the truth of his claims.

The*re is. howe've r, ne» n(*(*d to take se*riously Tahra Bey's
claim to l)e able* to engender a state* of suspende*(l animation
a.»ialagous to the state of hibernation or ae*stivation of e‘(*r-
tain animals in latitudes subje?et te» prolongc'd cold or drought.

It is true* that eatalej^tie states can be'corne* so extreme
that. bre‘athing is seareely ]>er(*e*plible. Som(*time*s the*
rese niblance of sue*h state's to death is vei’v ei(*ce?ptive*. and
ease‘s have* be*e*n known in wliieh individuals liave* be‘en
place‘d in their e*ollin only to “come* to life” in time* to
save* thems(*lve*s by death from suffoe'ation in the actual
grave. But whether suedi extreme stale's can be* induce'd
voluntarily without the aid of drugs is iinlike*ly

Some confirmation for the fhe*ory that some* human beiiigs
can exist for a considerable length of time without any oxy¬
gen other than that retained l)y the lungs is supplie*(l by the
anthropologist (lore*r. ‘ He wrile?s that ne*ar St. Louis,

* G«>ror, Africa I)aiic;*s, p. 47 ; 191.9.

284

The Psycholch;y of the Occitet

French West Afrieji, certain fishernu^n or wol elaini to
able to stay under water “ almost indefinitely He states
that he aetually witnessed one of tliese men divt' into clear
Mater where he n^mained at the bottom for three quartiTs of
an hour. The man stayed continuously in view ami “ had
no apparatus of any kind This gift, it is stated, is con¬
fined to a fe‘w families, and is developc'd by training.

The oflieial Avc rid record for breath-holding is 15 min.
]3 see*. This was re*ndeT(‘<I pe)ssil)le by forcTel l)re‘athing anel
the inhalatie>n of e)xygem befe>rc the e*omme‘ne‘e‘ment. With¬
out sue*h aieis the bre‘ath eanne)t be lielel for me)re‘ than a
fe\v minutes at most, (h)rer’s ae*eenint is jm*sumably in¬
accurate*, anel in any event the breath-holeling fe*at he* ele*s-
cribe*s is very dincre‘nt from the state* of sijsj>e‘n(ie*el animation
(*lainu*el by e*eTtain fakirs, sadhus, a?Kl se‘lf-style*d ye^gis.

The e*laim fhat the re‘spiratie>n may be* stojqxel for a pe rioel
of elays can be* re*ie‘e*led out of haml. Kv(*n if it we re* pos¬
sible for a human being to cnte*r a })rolonge(l and (‘xtre‘m<*
state of e'atale*psy aiialagous t;e) hibernation, sofnr breatliing
MTUjlel have* to oe*eur, he)we*Y<T slight.

A slate* of true* hibe*rnatie>n has ae*tna)ly bee*!) inelueeel
artifiriallf/ in monkeys mairs n(‘are‘st relative* e-n the*
evolutionary se*ale* vvhie*h Tu*v'er hib.crtiate* in their natural
state. The monkeys Me‘re first anae'sthetise*d and lh(*n
plaeeel in a ce)]el e*hamber. Whe*n the* lempe rature* hael fall(*n
gradually to about 25 degre*es e'eutigrade* the* anaeslhe*tic
was no leaigeT ne*e*e'ssary the* aninuds remaineel imme)bile*
anel insensil)le to ])a.in, and se*are*e*ly bre*athing. Sue*h
methods as the*se*, however, se*arc<‘ly a])j)ly te) the e)ricntal
fakir.

There is, in fae*t, im ne*e*el to ])e)stulat(* eilhe*r an extreme*
catale‘ptie state* e)r any great re*due*tie>n in the rate* e»f bre*ath-
ing to ae*e*e)unt fe)r such fe*ats as “ burial alive* as Prof.
J. H. S. Haldane* ele*me)nstrale*el many years ago. Ne)r is
the*re‘ any ne*e*el to attribute sueh f(*ats te) tricke*ry, as the
fe)lle>wing ae*e*ount by Dr. H.. J. Vakil be‘ars w'itness.*

Dr. Vakil re*ee)rels he)vv on February 15th, 1J)5(), at five* ]).m.
an emae*iate*d midelle‘-aged sadhu e*alled Shri Haindasji
• IlalUiinc and Hrie*stly, licspiration, ISl.

•Vakil, It. .1., Rrntarlahfr Fait of Knditranrr hif a Yo^i Frirsf, I.aiic«‘U
ia.>0. ii. p. 871.

Hukial Ai.ivk

285

ont(T(‘(l a. subtornincan coiicnjte (*iibic‘lc lu^ar liombay
a c*ri)\v(l. The eubick* iiicasiired aj)])r()\imately

5jn. by 11ft. }>y «srt., with a total air capaeity of some 210
eubie f(‘ct. All six walls of the (*ut)icl(* were studded with
nails, most of tli(*m old and rusty.

After Shri llai^Klasji had sat dovvji in the eubi(*le, a eon-
<Tele lid was sc'aled down ovct him with eenuait, rendering
it ])(‘r(eetly air-ti^ht.

Kifty-six hours later a hole was bored in tlie lid of the
(‘ubi(‘le and l.tOO ^all(»ns of wabu* were poun'd in by iiieans
of a lire-hose. The lioI<‘ was then s(‘aled up. Apj)roxi-
mately six and a half laairs lat(‘r the concrete lid of th<‘
eubieh* was r<‘mov< (l ; tin* sadhu was taken out of the water
in which in* was almost eomplettly imm(TS(‘d. Dr. Vakil
subjeet(‘d him to a elini(‘al ('xaminati(>]i on the* sp'ot. II(‘ w'as
semi-eonseitms ; his ]^ulse was weak, llwaigh regular ; his
resj)iration was also regjilar, but was ratlier slow' at (‘ight to
ten a minute.

The a])|)liea1 ion of smelling salts soon nw ived him and he

oj)en(‘<l his eyes and took lieed of his surroundings
Aj)art from sonu* seratelu‘s and cuts he a})|)ear(‘d little the
w’ors(i for having spent sixty-two hours under such gruelling
(‘onditions.

The followers and diseijdes of tin* sadhu elainu'd that lie
had remained in a state of susjiended animation and nu'dita-
tion throughout tlie ordeal. The way in which Dr. Vakil
refers to th<* '‘dry stage'’ and the “wad stage" as bana
sawndhi and jala samadhi ri‘S})(*etively, mak(‘s on(‘ supj)os(‘
that they are traditional. Sama/ti. of course, is a yoga
term d<*signating a blissful trance state.

But, as Dr. Vakil points out, tluTe is no need to attach
any niyst(uy to tliis feat. The yogie feat of immurement
(dearly dejiends on the size of the “ cHilfin ’’ and the rate of
oxygen consumption. The relevant ex})eriments were car¬
ried out many years ago liy Prof. Haldane, wlio calculated
that an oxygen eonsumptioi\ of about half a cubic foot per
hour, or two and a lialf cubic feet of air, would b«‘ the mini¬
mum allowan(»e if a man lay perfectly still. Accc^rding to
these figures Shri Ramdasji could have remained in his
cubicle of 216 feet for around 85 hours had not water been
inserted during the latter stages of his immuration.

Tlir. PsYCHOLOCV OF THK OC’CUI.T

2sr>

It is impossible to say whether Shri Ramdasji iiulueed n
slate of traiiee while in his subterranean eubiel<\ or whether
he (*xereis(‘d a high d(‘gr<H‘ of fortitude. He may possibly
have tak<*n some kind of nareotic drug into the eul)icl<^
with him. Any lran<*e state woidd und(‘nia)))y s(Tve to
mitigat<‘ the severe physieal dis<*ond‘ort and m(‘ntal strain
of sueli })rolonged immuration. It would further have the
advantage^ of (^riabling tlH‘ sadhu to k<‘ep juTfeetly still
and so redue(‘ oxygt ii eonsumption to a minimum.

Hut in Sliri Hamdasji’s <‘ase it was not very lilo ly that h(‘
went into a deep tran<*<‘ aft(*r the wat(T was pourt'd into tlu^
(‘\ibie!e, for the danger c»f drowning was a, very real one.
Nor is it really like ly that he required a trance* state* te) Iie lp
him through the* [jrevious otMioiir oreleal. Many a saelhu
has reinaiiK'd immoliile for months and e ven years uneler
eoiiditioTis just as gruelling. Tlie* plienemienal j)ovveTS e)f
onduranee of the e>riental religienis ase'e tie* lias be*e‘n demeiii-
strateMl time*s watheait numbe*r.

'fahra He*y’s medhoel of inelue*ing the ‘'yoga sleep" e*an
be take*n with a grain eif salt. A more* tyj)i(*al and me)re
eTC'dible* ye>gie* me'th<‘el is by making an inte*nse‘ ellbrt of
abslraetie»n from all im])r(‘ssions of the (*xternal world,
slowing elovvn the* respiratieui to an alisolute* minimum (an
ability purporte elly enge*nelereel by y<*ars of spe*(*ialisatie)ii in
se*i(*ntifie* bre'ath-eontrol), fixing the e*ye‘s u[)oii the tip of
the nose, anel the* (‘onse*ejue'nt iiieluetion of a state of extreme*
auto*hypnosis.

It is impossible* to state the maximum duration eif any
“ ye)gie sle*e*p " e*ngenelered by this rnetheal. Hut it is to be?
remendieTerel that “ burial alive ” and similar feats are not
consonant with ge*nuine yogie praetie(% and claims te> have
aehieve'el sue*h feats by induering a “yogie* sleep ” are the*re-
fore suspect fre)rn the beginning.

Tradition has it tliat some yejgis Iiave remaiiu*d buried
for periods of months. This edaim cannot be taken seriously,
even if a statei of artificial hibcTuation weTc attaineel by the
use of drugs or any other conceivable method. The functions
of th(* human body cannot be made to imitat(* such animals
as the field-mouse whieli may lie for as long as six months,
scarc(‘ly breathing; (th(? rate of breathing of some hiberna-

Tiik Lamas of TiiiF/r

287

ting rnarnnials ilie hamster, for example may be redue<;(l
to us little as f)ne per cent of normal).

Jt might, of course, be possible for a person in an <‘xtrcine
and j)rolonged cataleptic trance to remain immured for a
piTiod of a fortnight in a big roomy “ coflin ”, Hut there
is no cvid(‘nee tliat such |)rolonged trance stat(\s can b<‘
induced voluntarily. Trickery must always be suspcjcted.

Th(‘ j)rofessional magician Ot taker FiscluT records that
in s(‘V'(Tal cas<?s of burial alive ” it was found that th(‘
fakirs w(T(‘ buried near hollow trees, from which tunnels
ha<l been excavated to the burial plac<\*

Tiik Lamas of Tihkt

']'}ftc is one olher <»ricntal religious s(et which has had a
strong hold upon the imaginations of those given over to
tlKi literature of niystieism and the occult the, lamas of
Tib(‘t. There ar<‘ sev(Tal nrasons for this intcTCst. In the
lirsl place r(*lativ(‘ly f(‘W white nuai hav(‘ visited this land.
Se(*on(lly Tilietans are the nu st r(‘ligion-eouseious peoj)le
in the world, viaierating a supreme serni-divine ruh r-priest—
th(‘ Dalai Lama. The setting of J,«amaism is tlu^ “ roof of
tlie world ”, the high plateau of mountainous Tibet. Tlie
centre of religious activity, and tht‘ rcisidimce of the Dalai
Lama, is the fabled holy city of Lhasa, which, is, in fact,
the "" Mecca ” of the Huddhist religion. Kae.lv year numbers
of pilgrims from all over Asia crawl in the snow, often half
naked, around sacred Mount Kailas whicrh rises 2(),()()0ft.
above sca-l(‘V(‘l.

Larnaism is actually a modified form of Huddhism. Tlu?
tendeiKy in this religion towards magic and divination is
strong and it is not surprising that it has given rise to so
many (.‘soterie pseudo-religious cults in America and Kurope.
Its somewhat crude mysticism arose in rcsi>oiise to the
su})erstitious and primitive idi'as of thc^ hardy Tibetan pleas¬
ant folk. The magical and divinatory practices of the
priests, the total nurnbiT of which is estimated at over a
quarter of the mah‘ population, are girierally primitive in
(‘omparison to those of the other gr(‘at oriental r(*ligions.

‘ Fiseln‘r, ()., lUiistratjed /W«gic, p. 11M).

288

Thk PsYcnoi.oc'.Y ov TiiK Oet'\-i;r

Among (‘ertfiin of tlu* Lama sects, however, arc thos(*
who practise extrt'iiu' asceticism and otliers who ])ass their
lives in teaching and (*onten)plation. Some of tfu'ir prac¬
tices have arous(‘d the curiosity and wonder of the West.
Photograplis have come imek to Kuropi* showing Tihetan
priests or neophyt(‘S standing stark uak<‘d in tlu* snows of
Mount Kailas as a t(‘sl of eiulurance or as an act of worshij).
Thcs(‘ lamas may stand in tJie hitt(‘r cold for a period of
tw<‘lve hours and sometim<‘s for as long as Iwenty-four
without apparently siincring: it is (‘V<‘n r<‘cord(*d that the
pers])iratioii is sometimes visil)le on th(‘ir l)odi<‘s.

A(*co!'ding to Tilxdan lore th<‘ ability to withstand tlu*
cold during such vigils is dm* to a mystical forc<‘ call(*d liuna
wliieli, by warming tlu* semen. lilH*rat(*s its cncTgy until it
eours(‘s througli tlu* body via innujiu rablc minutt* clianncis
calh*d The t(*rm itself dinotes warmth or heal,

though not in the (»rdinarv senst* of tlic words.

Neophytes who wish to be initiated into the mysteries of
iuino must first undergo a long j)criod of probation, tlu* prob¬
able aim of which is to test tlu* robustness of (*ach candidate
and weed (uit those pliysically unsuitabh*. TJiose finally
select(*d for training then undergo long liours of practising
certain mental disciplines, physical post tin s, and breathing
exerc.ses, in the bitt(*r c(»ld -clad only in a cotton garm(‘nt.
or completely naked.

Those who i)ass the final t(*st gain the (*oveted title of
respas. For this test a frosty moonlight night is chosen,
often with a hard wand blowing. The candidates sit naked
on tluf ground, near a lake or river. Small cotton sheets
are then dipped into tJu* icy wat(T which are then placed
round them. The candidates are exp(‘cted to dry the sheets
by the heat of their bodies; in former tim(‘s they were
expected to dry at least three sheets in this way.

Having pass(‘d this test they renounce, in theory at least,
all wool or fur clothing, and the comfort of a fire. Some of
the mor(i ascetic will spend whole winters in caves among
the snow-covered mountains, clad only in a single cotton
short, keeping warm, they claim, by ncithing more than the
mysterious force of tumo.

The explanation of such feats, however, can be attributed

The Lamas ok Tibet

289

to a ('oruhiiiation of factors ; the gradual acclimatisation
to cold through long practice ; the naturally high resistance
to (*old of those sel(‘ctcd for training; and the dry climate.
During th(^ long motionless vigils in the snow an undoubted
tranee-state is cng(?ndered in which intense autosuggestion
plays a leading rol(‘ ; the special breathing exercises, per¬
formed automatically after long practice, may also have a
cold-resistant function. Tlic character of such trance-
states, iuid the method of evoking them, are similar to those
of yoga.

Control of th<‘ I)ody-temperature is also rejiuted to be
yogic practi(*<^ Sonu* yogis, by a eertain technique of
breathing and by fixing their thoughts on cool scenes, such
as mountain streams or snow-capped peaks, claim to be able
to k(‘cj) (‘ool even in the hottest weather if they so desire.
The lama priest or neophyte, on the othtT hand, reverses
the pro(*ess ; he first induces an autohypnotic state and
lixes his imagination on olijccts associated with great heat—
fires, or the liot sun in a secluded valley. The imagina¬
tion, in hypnotic or hysterical states of consciousness, may
hav<‘ all tin* effect of suggestion forcefully uttered by a
hypnotist.

Psychosomatic control of body temperature is virtually
unexplored territory. However, among a series of inter¬
esting ex[)erimeuts, J. A. Iladfield of London University
dcscrib(*d how he produced changes in the temperature of
a patient’s arm by waking suggestion. Dr. Hadfield first
had his j)atient taken for a five mile walk and on his return
the skin temperature of his arms was found ti» be 95”F.
Suggestion w^as then given tliat the right arm was to get
cold ; Hadfield r<‘ported that wnthin half an hour the skin
temperature of th(* right arm fell to 68''F. which was the
precise temperaturt* of the room. On rev^ersing the sugges¬
tion the surface temperature of the palm rose again to 94°F
which is near the normal blood temperature of the human
body. The patient was naturally suggestible and had fre¬
quently been hypnotised by Hadfield ; but in the above
experiment it is reported that the patient had not been
hypnotized and w\as in the waking state throughout.*

• Hadfield, J. A., The Influence of Suggestion on Body Temperaturey Tlic
F.ancet, .July, 1920, p. 08.

290

Thk Psyciioixmjy <>k tiik OcTui/r

Few sitiiilar exptTiments upp<^ar tt) have bwii rejM)rte(l.
However, A. Macey records how he once induced, by hyp¬
notic suggestion, a state of perspiration in a subject in cir¬
cumstances possessing many parallels h) the vigils of the
Tibetan lamas : “ During one winter at Berlin in an intern¬
ment camp, w'heii thick snow lay on the ground and the
army hut was altogether unheated, the writer suggesti^d
to a subj(!(!t that he was at home in England during August,
lying in a garden hammock, with the hot August sun blazing
so fiercely upon him that he was in a l)ath of perspiration.
In accordance with this suggestion the subject burst forth
in a violent state of perspiration.” *

If suggestion <^an influence the physiological heat-processes
of the body normally eoni.rollwl by the automatic and vaso¬
motor systems, what is the pnwess actually involved 'i

The great heat regulator is the skin, which controls the
loss of heat through the vasomotxn system and the nervous
mechanism of perspiration. Food temporarily increases the
rate of heat production, particularly if sugar is present, by
an increase in the body’s metabolism. It is possible that
suggestion may indirectly affect the rate of metabolism,
enabling the fats and sugar to be eonsunicd more rapidly
than normal and thus enabling the body to produce more
heat in a given time. Such an increase normally takes
place when tlie heart action is accelerated by strong emotion.
It also occurs to a certain extent during periods of intense
mental concentration. Some such process may occur
in the case of the respas who stand motionless in trance in
the snow for hours at a time.

The state of trance almost certainly engenders the delusion
of warmth, and would at the same time^ render the respas
oblivious to the increasingly unpleasant effects of cold upon
his system during the latter stages of his vigil.

* Maccy, A., Hypnotism KxpUtined, p. 5(5

Chapter Stwenteoi
FIRE WALKING

J^iKK-WALKiNc; is a j)ractieo dating from jyfreat antiquity,
Orij^inally fire-walking eereinonies often formed part of
the primitive spring festivals desi^md to ensure a plentiful
harvest. Today these riles are still praetised in many
])arts of the world hut they are a great deal less common
than they were* half a century ago when r(‘jx)rts of such
pcrfornumec‘S were comparat ivc'ly fre(|uent. Modern fire¬
walking ceremonies ari* performed for a ^'ariety of purposes,
hut some have degeiuTated into mere exhibitions with
no further ohjeet in view than to impress the bystanders
with the walk(T’s apparent immunity. Details of the
ritual vary considerably in difTerent countries, especially
in regard to the preliminary rites and preparations. The
main ess(‘ntial, however, is invariably the same : the walkers
stride barefooted, at a rapid jiace, over intensely hot embers
or heated stones.

The ceremonies are impressive to observe, particularly
if considerable numbers of people are engagtxl in passing
over the glowing embers. But as to the details reports
vary a great deal since most observers have apparently
come away with the probability of occult powers strong
in their minds. This has tend(‘d naturally to colour their
reports, some of which are exaggerated out of all propor¬
tion. Some observers appear to have been exceptionally
credulous about the performers’ claims, even to the extent
of accepting the latter’s highly mystical interpretations
of the cause of their immunity to burning. In point of
fact, the fire-walk can be performed by almost anyone and
many Europeans have followed successfully in the wake

291

292

Till' Psy('H()i.oi;Y of tiif Occi i/r

of orimtal fire-walkers witli little or no iiijurv. The priest
or fakir jr^uerally explains this by elaiinin^ tliat lie himself
has exten(l(‘d his own immunity lo those that Ibllow.

In geiural, the fire-walk is eonfiiu'd to walking over
glowing embers. Virgil, Strabt^ ami Pliny giv(* tiecoimts
of siieh ember-walks in (apj)adoeia two thousand years
ago. Until w'ell into the nineteenth (‘(adnrv (auber-watks
took plaee as far west as Bulgaria. Iii the* j)ast, emlxr-
w^alking was eonimon in Uhina and Japan, and it is still
practised in many ])arts of India and IMalaya today. Where-
ever there are lanigrant Hindu eomniunitic's the embcT-
w<alk is still oeeasionally practised. Su(*h a rite* o(‘(‘urred
in in PietcTniaritzhurg, South Africa, and was per¬

formed by Hindu settlers in fultilment of a vow'. A numiK r
of D(Tvish sects in North Africa in(‘lud(‘ the ember-walk
among their repertoire of ])ain-d(*fying ])raetiees, ofteai
thrusting sk(‘W'ers through their niuselts before* and during
the event. Some Hiiidu ceremonies also include this
latter spectacle.

The ember-walk is particularly ini[)ressiv(‘ if it takes
place at night when (to the miinitiated) the glow' from the'
embers makes it see'in imj)OssiI)le tor a human being to
pass over unseatheil. More* impressive* still, however,
are the stone-walks in which the* fire-walkers walk ov(*r
stones heated to an extraordinary d(*gre(*; se>m(* deserij)-
tions make it clear that the* stone*s anel small bouldeTs
glow reel with the hc'at. In both embe r anel stone walking
the heat arising from the embers e)r ste)nes fre ejuently make*s
it impossible for the s[)eetators to appreKieh the side* of the*
fire-trench for more than a few se*e*einels at a time\ Some*
reports even sj)eak of art iele*s e>f clothing w^e)rn by the walke*r
smouldering or e‘atching fire.

Stone walking is indeed a f(*at te) be w"e)neleTe*el at, and
it is doubtful whether any European has sue*eeeded in
actually w^alking the stones. The intense* he*at given out
by the stones puts it e)n a level altogether elitferent fre)m
the emiber-walk. One e)f the ee>nj(*etures brought tV)rward
to aceemnt fe)r the stone-w^alk was the induction e)f a spher¬
oidal state It is we*ll knowm, for example*, that a hand
may be dipperel for a brieT me)me*nt in molt(‘n k'ael withe)ut
resultant harm, provided that the temperature is greatly

Firk Wai.king

295

above the nietars melting point. This (‘fleet is aided con¬
siderably if the haiid is first dam])ed by a wet cloth. A
cushion of vaj)our is thus formed betwicn the molten metal
and the skin. As a result of exptTiments (‘arric'd out be-
for(‘ the war, however, the spheroidal th(‘ory may b(* con-
s i( 1 ere‘d s u p(*r lb lous.

Other theori(‘s purporting to aeeount for ihe fire-walk
included the idia that the fire-walk(T indue(‘s an autohyp-
liotie state with accompanying analgesia and a psycho-
somatic m()difi(‘ation of the tissu(*s to injury by burning.
This theory is not to be rcj(‘ct(‘d as altogether fanciful.
Some such principh* may be involv(‘d. in a minor way.
It is not likely, how(‘vcr, that it constitutes a major factor
in tile walker's immunity, though It is gi\'(“n countenance
by some of the initial rites and tabus wlii(‘h act as a pre¬
lude. These include* lasting. se‘xual abstineaice*. j)ray(*rs,
monotoneuis chanting, exhortations, frenzied rhythmic
elanc*ing and a vari<‘ty of aedivities cahailateel to purify
the* walkers before their eirde‘al. Tb(. comViined elTeed of
many of the*se‘ initial purilie^ation rit(‘s must oft(‘n produce
in the* walker a highly sugge‘stiblc tranc*e-lik<‘ state*. There‘
is, however, little* indication that the* [)rimary fune'tion
of sueli jm liminaries is anything more than to l>ring about
the' e'xpulsion of the* walke*rs' natural fear, and this is pro¬
bably aided by the* use* of su(*h drugs as liasliish whe*n
occasion demands.

Absence of fear is a vital point in all types of fire-walk.
It is necessary to ki'cp on('*s wits ; for poise*, (‘orrect pacing,
and timing are all important. It is for this reason that
alcoholic liepiors arc lU'veT taken Ixforchand. Fear, by
undeTmining confidence*, spoils the walker’s judgment.
The initial rites thcre*forc play a big reMc in bolstering up
confidence.

There' is scarcely an ey(*-wdtncss account of the fire-walk
in which inaccuracies arc not evident. The tendency is
one of cxagge*ration ; wishful thinking, a pe*nchant for the
inysteTious, and lack of reporting e‘Xj>eTien(*e are all largely
instrumental in ac(*ounting for the dis(*re‘j)ancies of so
many accounts. Such reports tend to acceaituate* the!
mystery and the* marvel of the performances, particularly
those which date from the last century. A tradition of

\!l\U Tm-: Psvi iioi.cx.Y or Tirr 0(('ri.T

Ofcultisin surrounds the lin-walk which is totally uinvar-
rantabU^ by the facts. As a nsult, the jjrcnniiruiiess of
the pheiiouicnoii is t'rcqucntly called in (juestion cV(‘n to-
day.

The lire-walk usually takes place alono; the length of a
wn'd<' trt‘neh titled with red-hot embers. The depth of
the einbcTS varies very considerably fnun a few inches to
around four feed. In Fiji, the traditional home of the stxuie-
walk, and in other Pacific islands, larj^^e stones arc (*ast
into the trench anion^ the burning wood so that as the
latter becomes ineiiuTaled only the stones arc* left., inter¬
spersed with whit(*ly ^lowin^ embers. The hc'at ^i\(*n
out by such furnaces is so intense that rakin/^ the c inlxTs
and clearing the stones is carried out with Ion;* poles.

The trenches may vary from betw(‘(‘n iilti'en to thirty
or forty feet in length. Tlu* walkers stride* (juiekly from
one end to the other at most tlu‘y are in contact with
th(‘ lire only a few seconds. In the ember-walk tin fec*l
generally sink into tin* ashcN si'veral im*ht*s and a steady,
even stride is necessary to avoid siuki?ig too deep, 'flu*
feet arc* actually in c'ontact with the c*mt>c*rs le ss than half
a second during each step; this is the* secret of the tir<-
waik; and providc*d the feet are com|>lc‘tciy dry and fr(‘c‘
from perspiration, so that no burning aslics adhen* to
them during the* time each fool is in the* air. tie* risks of
burning are relatively small.

In regard to the* stonc*-walk, with its lar greater surface
heat, the thic*k calloused solc*s of tlie average Fijian or
Kanaka iincionbtc*clly play a major part in llie immunity
to burns. Probably a special hccl-and-IcK* tc(*hnic|Ut* has
been aequirc‘d as well, so that the time* during which any
one* part of the foot is in eoiitac*t with the* stones is thcTC'by
halve*d for e*aeh stride the walker makes.

A great d(*al of the myste‘ry of the lirc‘-walk was e*l(*are*d
up in by an experime nt eondueleel in Kngland under

the auspice s of the Unis ersitv of London (’oime‘il for Psyelii-
cal Investigation and a further e*.\f)e*rime*nt by tlie sanie
body in ' These* prol)ably re‘pre*sent the j)e st re^ports

* Price*, II., .1 Report oh Tno Kxperhueniat Fire<valk\\ riiiversily <»r

London ('oiineil for Psvc*liieal Inv(*sl igation, IIu)l(*tiii II, 1 !).*!(» ;

Hrown, G. B., Three Kxperimcutal F ire-walks y Hiille'tiu IV, 1938.

Fihk Wai.kixc

21>;>

on the siibj(‘et that are availabl(* and they have the solid
advantag(‘ that th(‘ texts are* snpj>ort(‘d by twenty-one
excellent j)li(»t(»graj)hie jdates. There is also appended a
bibliography on (ire-walking.

Th(* first of the tests, which was vvitnt ssed by William
MaeDongall amongst otheTs. pn>ved lx yond all dou})t
that the fire-walk was a gianiiiK* phenoni(*non. An Indian,
Knda Ihix, walked <juiekly along a twenty foot h'(‘neli
of glowing embers, several ineh(‘s d(*ep. four tim(‘S. TIis
feel w(-rr nx'dieally examin<‘d befon* and after the walks ;
thcTe was no sign of blisterisig. With great courage Digby
JMoynagh. Kditta* oi' the Si. liartholninni:‘s Uosjntal JniiniaL
walked hall' th(‘ distance before jumping out. Blisters
vubsixjuently formed on his f<*et. At tlu* second of the
IJKtr) t<‘sts the surface tcinpcratures were* found to be 130 C’.
(SOf) F.) and the* int(‘rior temperatur<‘ 1.100 ('. (2,552 F.).
I*riee re|)(»rts that the luat made it iin|)ossil)le to remain
near the lire trtiieh for long. At thise tests tlu* sei(*ntifie
and medical world were well re{)r( s(‘nt(*d. rej)orts sub-
se(piently a])p(‘aring in Xaturt ' and in T//e h(nt(rt\

During lh(‘ 1037 tests a M(»sh‘!n Indian from Fawnpore,
Ahm(‘d llussiiin, was the tire-walker. Il(‘ elainaxl to be
abl(‘ to convey his immunity to others and it was arranged
for three volunteers, all Fnglishmen. to follow him across,
which th(*y did. Two other volunteers then walked across
alon(‘. All showed trace's of slight burns. In the' next
experimeid Hussain took six steps to cross tweidy ieet
and was l)adly burned ; the surfaei* lemj)(‘rature was for-
midalde, being 740 F. A Mr. Adeix-k, one of thi' volun¬
teers of the previous < xpc*riment, (‘rossed tlie trench after
him, taking four steps, showing only slight signs of burning.
Adcock's perl’ormanee, in point (»f fact, was su])erior to that
of Kiida Bux, for he walked on a fin' Avhose surface ti'in-
perature was //curh/ heh'c as great, thus disp\)sing of the
idea that any mysterious agi'nci<'s are involvid. Among
1h(' eonelusions reaclu'd in I)r. Brown's n'porl wx're th('se :

(1) “ Tlx' tire-walk is in ne sense a triek : the walk is perfnrnied

ill the nernial manner with hare and eIxTnieally im|»n*j)ared feet.

‘ 21sl., and wSept. 193a.

» Sept. 28lJi., 1935.

21)6

Thk Psyc'ii()1.ooy ok TiiK Occni/r

(2) Owiii^r to the fact that the surface of the tire is a very unstable
one and tlie feet may sink in scvcTaJ inches, it is impossible to walk
so that a constantly chanjnring portion of tiie ft»ot is in contact with
the hot embers (this would be possible on a lirm plane surface) and
skill <d‘ this kind is not a factor necessary for succ(vss. Neverthe¬
less, steadiness in walking? is an advantage in onier to avoid remaining
with the weijrht (»n one foot for too lon^ an int(‘rval.

(Jl) Moisture on the feet is a disadvantaj^e sinr*e it may (*aiise hot
partich‘s to adhere to the skin and thus produet* blisters,

(4) The ‘ spheroidal stale \ i.e., the sudden formation of an in¬
sulating eushion of vaf)our betwe(‘fi tin* foot and the hot einb*‘rs,
does not oeeiir.

(5) No abnormal detyree of eallosity of the feet is r(‘rpiired.

(0) Kastinj; or other initial preparation is not necessary.

(7) No evidence was shown that imfmmity from l)tirnin^ ('an be
‘ (ionveyed ' to other persons,

(H) The fall in the temperature (»f the siirfa<?e (d the* soles of th(*
feel dviriii" tiie experiment was possibly due to a nnml)er of stt^ps
beiiif; taken on the t;rass aft(*r leavinn the fire, Ix'fore tlie place of
examination was reached.

(0) Inimimity is not due to eontael willi layers of relatively cold
ash in \vhieli eomhnstion has ceased, since in (‘Xpi riments with
Kuda Hiix, tiie ash was removed ; and in any ('ust*, IIk* f(‘(*l sink in
sufTieienMy tar to he in eonh'C'l with the burning embers and small
flames below tic surface*.’’^

Dr. Brown also points out* that in tropical countries
the calloused tVet of tin* native* would probably ^ive fire-
walkers )j;reater immunity than peoph* us(d to w('aring
shoes. Both Unx and lltissain and the European vohiu-
teers were* a(*etistoni(*d to wiaring shoes, and otn* can only
conclude that wJiat is possil)lc in the ease* ol’ Europeans
must of necessity be far c;isi(*r in the cast* of the* halntually
barefooted inhabilaiits of India or the South Seas.

» Mrown. a. Ih, ('niirrsitif rtf LonfhfK (’(funcil for J^stfchicft/ lnvvslioatioH^
Miillclin IV, p. C».

« ibid. p. 8,

Vhapici Eighteen
THE ISDIAS ROPETRICK

TTiii: 'I'K Auri'K )N Ai< riiA'r of the Indian rope* trick 1ms (;oinc
down to ns through the <*cnturit*s. It is reputed to be
the eulminatifig Hchiexxanent of* the oric-ntal inagiciaifs
art. At one time it was apparentty demonstrated fairly
oft.<‘ii ; today, liowever. despite numerous “ eye witness ”
accounts, it has grown into sonuthing of a legcaid, and
most p(‘0[)le no>v wonder wh(‘th(T it ever had any basis
in fact.

In the ancient world of Uonu*. Persia and the civilisa¬
tions of th(‘ North African littoral, tlie oriental magi used
to ply their skill to the astonishment of kings and princes
and their courts. Many of their trierks vari(*d little from
those of modern eonjurors. Put they made much use of
hypnotism and suggestion, and it was in tlu* art of inducing
haliueinations and delusions among their superstitious,
awed and credulous spectators that th(‘ reputation of the
oriental magi mainly rested. The Indian ro])e trick has
all the app(‘aranee of being in this category ; and today,
the modern descendant of the ancient magi, the itinerant
fakir, still on occasion hallucinates the gullible and sug¬
gestible audiences of the Orient.

This is what a well known AnuTiean ])syehologist. Pro¬
fessor \. E. Fisher, luis to say in this connection :

“ Tliert* is pcaiuips no piieiionit'iion in liie (‘nlir(* tiolcl of psyeliology
which is more interesting than Iiypnosis, but which at. the same
time 1ms received less exj)eriinental study. Yet as far Ijacrk as we
]iav€‘ written history we find evidence of suggestion and hypnosis
playing an important part in niairs life and activities. The ancient

297

29S

Tm: l\sY( ifoiiKiY OF tiik Occult

iiu'diciiir man cured the sufferer by iiieans of iiicaii tat ions luid
pharitastic ceremonies. The East Indian fakirs mystify their on¬
lookers by an>iisinf^, or inducing;, in them a hi^li decree of sujjfiresti-
hility and then causing? them to hallucinate a boy clinibififi; hand over
hand up a rope and finally disappearing into the sky.’"*

There arc* many moderti ac(*oiints of the Indian rojx!
trick. Sonic* of them arc* so ingenious that it bc'comes
plain the writc*r merely wishes 1o incorporate his own spc*eial
theory on the siibjeet in literary ibrin. Others arc* so
ingenuous that jdaiisibility is totally lacking. Accounts
have bc'cn printc*d where* mimbc'rs of Kuropc*ans c^laim
to have simultaneously witnessed the IVat and takc‘n photo¬
graphs of it, only to find that the* platc*s showed nothing
when developc*(l. Such aeeonnts, while* possibly true,
must be vie wed with suspicion. Most of them, at any rate,
can be taken with a grain of salt. Educ ated white people*
arc not usually subject to hypnotic or suggested hallucin¬
ations without prelimiiiarv (*xpc*rienec‘ of hypnosis, and
under special conditions. Mass hallucinations and delu¬
sions invariably take* place* in an atmosphere* of intense
expectation unde^r high emotional strain and arc not alto¬
gether an uncommon phenomenon in the* histe^ry of rc'ligion.
The reports give no indication that the Europeans c<mccrncd
were anything but highly see^ptical at the* time.

Probably one of tlie lirst such accounts was publishenl
by Lord Frederic Ilamiltoii in Here. The re and P^very-
where ”. Colonel liarnard, llamiltoii re lates, when Chief
of Police in Calcutta, had been iu\it(*d with a subordinate
officer to witness the* rope-trick. Thc'V took a e*aniera wdth
them and in due course saw the* rope throw'n into the air
and a boy climbing up it with a man after him. He^th boy
and man vanished, but the latter soon re turnc'd with a
blood-stained sword in his hand. The camera, doubtless
to the Colonel’s surprise, revealed none of the* e*ve*nts wdt-
nessi'd.

Ill 1934 e>ne of the big London we*ekly periodierals pub¬
lished a se^i(^s of eight photographs taken in the grounds
of an official Residency in which fht final pictures depicted
the rope lying on the ground and the small boy scuttling

Fishrr, V. E., futroduction to Afmormai Psychology, N.Y., 19:52.

Tiik Indian Rdpk-Tkk k

2111)

towards soim* adjacent bushes. "I'he Residcjit had brtii
shown the ropc-tricrk by a wandcTing fakir and had |)(*r-
suadcd him to r('pt‘at the ]i(‘rforniance a few days after-
w^ards, ostensibly to hav(‘ it demonstrated in front of a
imrul)er of independent European witnesse^s. Wh(;n the'
fakir repe^ated the* feat, for the second time the* Ite'sident
had concealed someone with a camera bediind a eoriUT of
the Residency buildinj^r, with the result just des(*ribed.

These and othc'r similar ae*eounts, as nii^ht w<*ll be ex¬
pected, lack full (h'tails. In point e»f fact, oiily e)ne well
versed in the psyeholo/:»v e>f hypnotism and suggestion
W()uld be eomjK'tent to present a proper detailed re^port.
It remains, therefore, de'spite* claims to the contrary, an
open que*stioM wh(*ther any Europ(‘an has witne\sst"d '
the Indian rope-trick i.e. has unwittingly ('xpe^riencx*d
a visual liallueination at tlie instigation of an ori(*ntal fakir
or magician skilU'd in the use* of sugge'stion.

In 1S75 Lord Northbrook. Vi<*e*roy of India, ofl’entel tlu*
sum of £10,000 to anyone who would demonstrate* tin*
Indian Rope* Trick. Though the* oiler was wide ly adve*! lise el,
no claimant came f<»rward.

It is surprising that the Indian rope trick has never been
take*!! up l)y vaude'ville hypnotists e)u the* Emope^an and
Am(*riean stagi*. Any <‘xjK*ri<*iU‘eel hy})notist e)p(Tating
with a suggestible^ subje(*t may ineluee' visual e)r auelitorv
hal]ueinatie»ns or delusions in almost limitless varie‘ty.
The roj)e* trick would n<»t be* any more* eliftieult te» suggest
to a liypnotise*el subjeMd than arty otlK*r varie*ty of hallu¬
cination. In such pc'rformance's. e)f course, tJie* subject
is always willing to be* hy])ne>tise‘el in the tirst instance*.

We can assume* that the*re were, in fe)rnu‘r tinu.*s, twe)
teehniqiK*s fe>r inelueing hallueinatie)ris or pseudo-Jiallii-
cinations l)y tlie proiessional magicians. 1'he hyjmotic
technique we>ulel he* mem* e*onvenient fe)r situatiems where
the magus or fakir was summoned te> private* aiulienee*
with reigning princes or members of the ne)hility with,
pe‘rhaps, a fe‘W^ of the*ir favourites. This was of freepient
oeeurreiKH* when any fanH>us magician visited a city or the*
abode* e)f a prin(*e*ly e*ourt. In fact, for any situation ele-

IMH)

The Psychology of the Occult

vised by the magus where just a few people were present
as spectators, he was in a position to make full use of his
powers as a hypnotist.

A diflereiit tt'chnique, w(‘ may eonje(‘ture, was used for
largo crowds of ignorant peasant folk. Siieh is th(‘ suggesti¬
bility of an ignorant (‘xeitt'd (Towd that they can be induced
to believ(‘ in almost anything, howeviT improbable. In¬
stances of eoll(‘etive visual hallueiimtioiis and delusions have
been known to occur from time to time through th(‘ cumula¬
tive effect of mass reciprocal suggestion, as for example in
the hallucinatory fdienomena of moving statues and ])aintings
or the apy)arition of fiery crosses in th(‘ sky. during times of
religious excitement. In such instant'es only n proportion
of the crowd experiences any sort of hallucination, but such
is the contagion of their ex(»ited criers and gc‘sti(mlations that
the otheTs will star(‘ and repeat their antics ; and although
thc*se others see nothing they will de[)art tonvin<*(‘d that
they have witnessed a mira(*le or a feat of magic.

The natur(‘ of th<‘ Indian rope trick l)(*eomes apparent
when it is remembered that the boy is n ported as disappear¬
ing into thin air after climbing up the rope in full view of the
audience. It s(‘ems scarcely possibh* that such a feat could
be accomplished by miTc prestidigitation unless elaborate
apparatus was in use. The fact that European and American
trick-magicians have been totally unable to pta-forni the
feat in the open is signiti<!ant, for (cK)r\trary to popular belief)
western conjuring is vastly superior to that of the orient.
The reputation of the latter rests on 11 k‘ eflects th(\v achieve?
through the use of sugg(*stion, and their success in this is
mainly due to the relative gullibility and suggestibility of
their audiences. Etiropean and American conjurors have
only simulated the illusion of the rope-trick on the stage
with the aid of comparativch' cumVaTsoim* ayiparatus, using
mirrors, or else light-absorbing material for the boy’s clothes
and stage back-cloth, and special lighting.

Some accounts of th(‘ rope-trick des(Tibe a boy (*limbiug
up a “ rope ” consisting of cleverly joi?itcd and threaded
bones or bamboo rods. Others describe a monkey dressed
in turban and dhoti clambering up a stiff rope. Nevertheless,

Thk IN'Dian Ropk-Tiuck ‘.mu

despite these duhieus imitations, it is safe to say tliut t.lie
t.ra()itio?ial ropc-triek has never been performed in actual
fact. It has never het'n anythitifi other than one of the
stock hallueinatioiis sujrgested by the itinerant oriental
magus or fakir to the eredulous and highly suggestible
audieiu'cs of the Kast.

('hapier \hiefeetf

PRIMITIVt: SHAMAMSM AND MODERN
SPIRITUALISM

SifAMAMSM

kUiiAMANJSM A g(‘n<‘ri(* term covtriiig niuny primitive"
(*ults Avhicli involve* n belie*!* in spirits nnel in the pewe‘r of
e<*rtain inelividunls to in!lne*nee‘ th<‘m e>r e*omniunicat(* with
theni.

The* ttM'iu ele‘rives from shamaa. a Siberian !ne*elieine-inan
e»r “ niyste^ry-inan whe) is nedeel fe>r his inediinnistie prao
ti(*e*s. Nenvadays anthre)pe>logists user the' \vf)rd ‘‘shaniaif’
to designate ahne)St any elass e>f tribal inagieian whe>se*
inagie is in any way attribut<*d te» ])rae*tices designed to
eontrob placate* e)r otherwise inllue-nee* dis(*arnate spirits.

Me)dern spiritualism is a e]ire*e*t e)fr-shoot e)!* primitive
shamanism.

Unlike the nieidein ine'dium the shaman is usually oim eif
the most pre)mineait figures in the life of the eomrnunity,
and he also fulfils tlie funetie)n of header. He e*ontaets ne)t
e>nly the spirits of the d<*ad, but the spirits of nature, and
various demons and gods as well.

The* modern seanee-e*ahinet is dire*etly derived from tin*
North American Indian conjuring lodge. Such seanee-
eabinets ” are found all over the world ; typi(*al of these
is th<‘ pano hut of the Semang mediums of Malaya.

Shainanistie mediums are known by scores of different
names : the Sernang medium is called a Ilalak ; the Eski--
mo('s have their Angakok ; in parts of Australia the shainaii

302

is known ns the Gamcruh or Itoyla : ' in South America the
IHai ; in Korea the Pan-Su ; in Horm o the Manaitg; in
Southern India the* Kuruwha \ in Hurina the Myildtti, and
hotter known tin; Thummri. Tin* spirits they call iipon also
have* their own j)artioular names.

The* imi)e)rtation of Ite‘d Indian sliainafiistie* })rae‘tie*e*s
into AitK-riean society durinp the* nineteenth e*e‘ntury had a
ve ry important elleet. For it brou^lit a f^reat resur^^e'iiee
e»f superstitious he'liefs anet j)ractie‘es wtiieli had largely
disapjieareel since* the* (h*(‘line‘ of witchcraft in Kurope*an
cultures.

This is not to say that tlicre* has < \(‘r hee-n any stroiu^
e*e»nne‘etion he twe-cn witedie'raft anel mode‘rn mediumship;
the yre*at Kuropean cult of‘ witchcraft, witlj its })ronoun(*cd
setxual e'lnphasis, se‘cret meetings, hlasphemous rituals anel
coveTt elefiance of (1mre*l» anct State*, lias di(‘d out almost
completely. Hut the* Fact re‘mains that the waning;’ l)(‘lief
in spirits anel the* supernatural re*(*e*iv(*d ne\N impetus from
the* modern cult of me‘diumshij>.

VVilcheraft still. fl()urishe*s in primitive* societies. With
many type‘s of primitive* shaman (the)Ugh by lU) me‘ans witli
ail) the medicine-man e*omhine*s the attributes e>f witchcraft
and me*diumship. The ve)e)ele)o-men anel e)beali-men of the
West Indies proviele a ^oeiel (*xample e>f this. Their speciality
use*d te> be tlie aelministration of ele*aelly pensons to ensure
that their curses workenl properly. Hut the* voe>ele) 0 -man’s
biggest claim to fame lay in his purpeirteel ability to bring
the d(*ad te) life. He* achieved this useful little trick by
m(;aus of hvpiiedic sugge*stion ; hrst he woulel induce a
cataleptic* tranee in his victim, and afte*r Inirial he wemld
“ re\ste>re ” them to automaton live*s as slaves.

The* e*ults of voodeio, ob(*ah and mvalism spre*ad to the
West ladies from Afri(*a. Th<*ir We*st Afrie*an ee>imterj)art

ju-ju, which may nu'an anything from an aniule^t, eliarm.^
magic, or curse, to the spirits e)r gods suppe)se*elly e*e>nneete*d
witli the?n.

The Afri(*an w'itehdoe*tor does not e*e)nform to a single
pattern, however. The Zulu Ganga is meire e)l a meelium in
the* western sense than the ju-ju man. He is an aelept at
acejuiring information fre»m the (iniadhiozi the spirits of
f]\i) dead.

SiH

ThK PsY( UOLlKiY OF THE OcCUl/P

Tales or the supernatural powers of African medicine¬
men are still reported by gullible white people. One of the
most persistent is that of the reputed power of certain witch¬
doctors to cure snake-bites in a few minutes, or even seconds,
by means of charms and incantations. It is probable that
many such stories can be trxplained by the use of hypnotic
suggestion ; by inducing a trance-state or an analgesic
condition the patient would be spared much of the debilita¬
ting exhaustion normally produced by the pain and wracking
spasms ; and if lu‘ survivc^d he would naturally attribute^
his reeovery to the vvitch-diudor’s magic.

Many Kurojx^ans have borne witness to the apparcait
ability of wdtcli-doctors and s})anians to bring badly ne(‘dcd
rain. “Rain-making’' rituals ar<‘ found the world over.
The secret of succt‘ssful rain-making is in waiting for the
first indi(‘ations of rain bifore (*onducting the ceremony.
General Smuts gaiiu'd (juitc a n^putation in this way. Hi-
often timed his arrival in drought-striken areas just as the
drought broke. Rut uulik(‘ the witch-doctor he was able
consult the Meteorological OHice beforehand.

The .African mcdicinc-man often makes good us(‘ of mes¬
sages exchanged by native drummers. To itiany people'
the “ bush-tciegraph ” beaten out by African drums still
constitutes an unsolved mystery with a flavour of the supe r-
natual. The explanation, how<*ver, is a prosaic ojk*. Mes¬
sages can, indeed, be sent hundreds of miles in a short tiim*
by relays of drummers. Rut th(‘ usual range of each drum
extends only almut ten to fifteen miles ; and most drum¬
mers can only send a limited numl)cr of stereotyped mes¬
sages, rather like those printed on prisoner-of-war postcards
during the war.

In many primitive communities a medicine man’s curst*
can produce grave eonsetpient'cs through the operation f)f
inalcficient suggestion. The Australian aboriginec is parti¬
cularly susceptible to the influent'c of the tribal witch¬
doctors, and many relial)l(* accounts bear witness to the
fact that powerful suggestion in the form of malevolent
incantation or a curse, may cause the victim to fall into a
coma which ultimately ends in death. The anthropologist

Spiritialism

305

W. K. Roth tcnnod this lethal form of suggestion
ihnnai(ym(niia,

TIkto is nothing supernatural about this weird pheno¬
menon, All doetors know that a seriously ill person’s
‘"will to live” or his resignation to death is often the de-
eiding fa(*tor as to whether he lives or dies. The same
psyehologieal factors are involved in thanat(»mania. only
in a much more extreme form.

Spiritualism

The j)rimitiv<‘ shaman, unlike his modern western (‘ounter-
part, employs any trick which will add to his supeTnatural
reputation. Modern mediums play for safety by confining
themselves to a much narrower range of ‘‘ phenomena ”
mostly simple conjuring tricks.

Th<‘ credulity of a primitive audience occasions no sur¬
prise. What is surprising, however, are the equally credu¬
lous reactions of great numbers of peoj>l<‘ in western society
to the arts of shamanism exhibited in the s6ince room.

Perhaps the most enlightening book on spiritualism is
The Road to Endor. Its author practised rnediumship for
the diversion of himself and others at a prisoner-of-war
camp during the first WT)rld war. His prolonged and elabor¬
ate hoax was brilliantly successful. In his preface he writes

“ We do know that, in the face of the most elaborate and
persistent efforts to detect fraud, it is possible to convert
intelligent, scientific and otherwise^ highly (dueated men to
spiritualism, by means of the arts and methods employed
by mediums in general.” ‘

All “ physical ” mediums use conjuring and trickery ;
“ most of these have already been unmasked as frauds, and
w'c are tempted to expect that the same will happen with
the rest as well.” *

The counterpart of the medium is the ready believer, as
Culpin once observed.* Mediums, knowing the illimitable
credulity of their clients, snap their fingers in the face of

» Jones, K. H,, The Hoad to Endor, p. ix.

* Sigmund Fre!id, New Iniroduciory Lectures on Psychoanalysis^ p. 50.

• Culpin, M., Spiritualism and the New Psychology, p. 158.

3()<) TUV. PSYClIOLOdY OF TTTK OCCITFT

ex})(>siin*. They are soon al)l(‘ to ri'store eonli(l(‘iiee in
themselves, for they know th«t flu* true believer (‘an n(‘ver
resist the temptation to s(‘iz(‘ upon I lie flimsiest evidence
of the supernatural. It is the sublit* eo-oj)eration of fraud
and s(‘lf-(leception which k(‘eps the cult of spiritualism so
vigorously alive.

It is a fact tjiat the eonvineed s]>iritvialist and the itnparlial
observer will usually write* totally difleriu^ aeeounts of the
samt* seanee. This is not surprisirij? for it is well known
that any short-lived incident reported in detail by untrained
(and unbias(‘d) observers will inehuh* false additions, and
the t)mission by t'aeh obs(‘rver of about half the essential
-points.

Kxj)(‘riments carried out in P.Kil by Th. Hest(*rman und<‘r
the auspices of the S(u*iet \ for Psychical Ueseareh* (‘mphasise
(piitt* clearly the unreliability of wiln(*ss(‘s' r(‘ports of what
had o(‘eurr(d durin^^ a simple fake s(‘an(‘e. even after the
sitters had ))ecn warned to observe a(‘(*urately with a view
to sul)se(]uently answeriiijr a (piestiounaire.

When the observer is under emotional strain, his powcTs
of ol)ser\ation become (‘orn'spondin^rly r(‘duced. In such
circumstances self-deception is so potent a fa.ctor that
deserij)tions by a believer in psyehi(‘al phenomena and by an
unbeliever of the same events an* often hardly id(*ntilia.ble
as referring to the same affair.'’ *

It is little wonder that tliousands (d people claim to have
repeatedly witness(*d such phenonu'ua as levitations, (*lon^a-
tion of the body, and the ‘‘ materialisation " of dead friends
and rclativ(*s. Oik* of the most striking (*xam{)I(*s of th(*
spiritualist's (‘ajiacity for self-d(‘e(‘ption occurred during
the trial of the French photographer Huguet. liuguei
admitted that he faked his photographs, used a draped doll
or lay figure for liis purpose. Yet witness after v/itness
testified that Buguet had given them photographs of their
dead loved ones, refusing even to accept the photograj)h(T’s
explanation of how he made them.

S(*!f-deeeption in regard to the occult is not confined to

• Beslerrnaii, T., The Psyctmhgfi of Testimony in relation to Parophyswal

Phennynena, Proc.S.I’.R., xl, 1932.

• Schiller, F. C. S., Psychology and Psychical Research, The Monist, xb

1930, p. 44.(;.

SJMHITUAIJSM

307

inediiinis hikI spiritualists; even the most iiitelligeiit of
psyeliieal researehers fiavc their own brand. A good ex-
a?nj)le is ])rovided by tlie well-known “ (toss eorrespondcnce
tests/’ in which stupendous ingenuity and perseverance
wen* displayed by a group of psychical researeh(Ts who
strove for y(*ars to find souk* factual correspondence between
a dead sclmlar's pur]>orled <*(unmunicatio!is and the writings
of anci(‘nt classical authors. The ditliculty in doing
this was attributed to the subtlety of the d(*ad scholar.

Psychical n'scarcluTs have always indulg(*d in wishful
interj)r(‘tation of mediumisti(* utterances. The object of
this pastinu* is to try and scpieczc* out evidi‘nce of para¬
normal powers IVom the medium’s utterances, Ikuycvct
allusive. Ambiguous, and usually point k‘ss. utterances of
tlu* medium are car(‘l\dly noted d<nvn ; and then a search is
made to lind ‘‘ veridical ” <*vcnts \vhi(*li would make sense
of the utterances. '‘Solutions’’ are <‘\cntually uiu‘a,rthed
which usually possess ccmsidcrab'c* textual incongruity and
whi(‘h arc applicable only within the widest limits of rele¬
vance. The resultant " r(‘j)ort is pres(*nted for public
p(‘rusal with a convincing air of restraint and impartiality,
which, however, is (juit(‘ spurious. This procc'ss reached the
hc'ight of absurdity in tin* psychical researcher’s investiga¬
tions of “ proxy sittings.”

The lev(*l (»f intelligence* displayed by spirits of tlie Gr(*at
Beyond is d(‘pressingly low ; the sort of lif(* they lead would
furnish any reasonable pcTson with a good argument against
suicide. Yet tlierc is scarcely any limit to the lengths to
which some spiritualists will go in trying to establish proof
of their reality.

A classical example of this was provided by a certain Dr.
Watt(Ts in 11)33. lie published an a(T*ount" in which he
claimed to have photographed the “ immaterial bodies
of ciTtain animals at the moment of death. This <‘poch-
making feat was ('arricxl out by Tueans of a VVilsoTi C3oud
Chamber ! Unfortunately, Dr. VVatter’s photographs w'cre
a little blurred. Three years later a Mr. HoppcT tried to
repeat the expcrin\ent. He failed to detect anv ‘‘ immaterial
body _

Hulletin of iii<* Hcrnarrt Johii'iton Foundation for Psy<‘hologi(^al
Research, October, 1933.

808

The PsYcnoLOGY ok the Occui/r

For people of iinl)alaiiee<l minds spiritualism undoubtedly
presents a real danger. Fixed delusions, and <'V(‘n insanity,
may Ix' the final result. J. 1). (^uaekenbos, writing in HM)S
mentions three women “ who sought the ol)ieels of their
erotomania in extra-jdanetary life, and st>lemnly declared
they were having lov<' relations with disearnat<- spirits”. '
It is j)erhaps fortunate that no otie has as yet tried to eoni-
mereialise this attraelive idea.

Cases have been known where menially unl)alaneed people
have b('eome so obsessed by spiritualistic ideas that they
have killed themselves in (wder to join their lost htved one's
in the spirit-world."

The eli^ iehng line he'lwee'ti semity and insanity in nnsliums
is ('fte-n a thin one. The final phase': eef lltde'iie Siiiith's
life jm)vide a geu)d example e)f this. Many mediums suffer
from fixed delusions and obsessiems. Several have become'
obsesse'd with the idea that (h»d iiddresses himself directly
to them through their tabh'-tilting and automafie-writing.
Others have the delusion that they are bodily transported
through space by dise'arnale' spirits, to the plane'ts or eve'ii
Heaven itself.

On the other hand, for many people sjtirifualism is an
undeniable blessing. The shamanistie periormames of lh(^
seance nxmi should not be confused with genuiiu' religious
or Christian spiritualism. Religious spiritualism, for many,
transforms the facts of (halli and sufft'ring into something
which does not hurt (juite so much.’ It often ht'lps the
individual to adjust himself to the problems of life, eomp 4 ‘n-
sates for frustrations, and provides a seemingjy logical
justification to «‘xistenee.

’ Hypnotic Therapeutics, p, 'Mz.

• See V''ioflc't, M., Spiritualism and Insanity.

•Lawton, G., The Drama of Life after Death, p. :Mi7.

Chapter Txveittp

THE ^ PHYSICAL PHENOMENA ” OF THE SEANCE

ROOM

sTUjjy of the “ physical phenomena of spiritualism

produces the uneomfortahle feeling ol* walking on a swamp,
in which healthy eommonsiaise is liabl(‘ to sink wrote
Professor Ik Havink in his Anatomy of Modern Scieime.
This (»hservation is an apt oiu*. Ihik ss the student of spirit-
iialistic ])henomena has a working knowledge of tVie psycho-
logy <»f deception and delusion, and has first read the literature
t'xposing the fraud and trickery to he found in the scHirice
rot)in, he had better keep away from spirit\ialism altogether,
else he stands in dangt r of drifting impiTceptibly into belief
in a <*ult whi(*h has little to recommend it. This has been
the unfortunate experience of many intelligent and gifted
people in the past.

Tlic best ( xamplc ol thf‘ d(‘grce to vvhifdi a brilliant intellect
may sink into the spiritualistic sw'amp is j)rovided by the
well-kn(»wn physicist Sir William t’rookes, who (*laimed to
have strolled arm in arm with a materialised spirit who
called lierscif Katie. Such a degree of credulity appears
almost impossible. Yet many fine minds have bee n bitten
by the spiritualist bug and they hav(‘ l(‘ft an impr(‘ssive
array of arguments and testimony which is only too apt to
trap the unwary into similar beliefs. As a subject of psycho¬
logical study spiritualism off<Ts many interests, but it cannot
be suflicicntly emphasised that the physical phenomena ”
of the seance room have been exposed as mere trickery
times without number. M(»st of tlu‘ leading “ physical ”
mediums have l)een repeatedly detected in fraud and exposed

309

mo

Tin: Psv( nof*(H;Y ok the Omn/r

HvS little more than clever triekstcrs, including the notorious
Eusapia Palladino, who for years puzzlecl many learned
savants in Kuropt' and Ain<‘rica.

The first thing that may strike the impartial investigator
is that frauduU'nt or not. precisely that type of happening
oe(‘urs at these ‘‘j)hysi(‘al seances whieli one would fully
exfieel to happen wen^ trickery the basis of the phenomena
observt^l. On seor(‘s (if occasions intelligent investigators
have testified unetjuivoeably to their absolute* eonvi(*tion that
such and such psychic ph(*nomenon took place which
wen* afterwards proved to have been prodm*(d by tricks or
mechanical means. !n re<‘ent years, however, sin(‘e the
introduction of the infra-red tc‘lescope, which enabl(*s the
viewer to sec all that goes on in a completely dark room, no
medium has been able to demonstrate h(*r “ psyel.ic ”
ability to the scientifically e<juipped investigator.

There are many argunants put forward by psyeliieal
res(‘archers for tin* sei(‘ntitie thoroughiK*ss of th(‘ir inv(*stiga-
tions, and such arguments are j)atently naive. Scientific
methods of investigation are based on universally aeeeptt‘d
principl(‘s. and these art* very ditr<*rent from those adopted,
until (^uit(* reetmtly, by psychical r(‘S(*areluTs in th(*ir investi¬
gations of '' physical mediums. There is no ne(*d to go
into th(*se claims in any detail. For the fact remains that
aftt‘r sixty years of in\cstigatioii j)syehieal resi*areh still
has not decided whether the claims of the “ physical ”
mediums have any basis in actuality. If genuine s(*i(*ntifie
methods had be(*n emj)loyed all through this p(‘riod, th<*
issue would n(*ver have remained in doubt.

Tlv* nu*dium, in order to prot(‘et hers(*lf against ex})osure,
is forced to maintain the worst possibh* conditions for th<*
control and observation of the ( vents which take place
during the seane(‘. If tlu* sitters refust* to comply wdth tluvse
restrictions, (hen either no “ phenom(‘na ” occur or the
seance is txrminated. Under such conditions no scientific
observation is possible. All that such investigations amount
to is pitting one’s wits against those of the medium, with tin*
disadvantage that one must pretend to conform with her
innumerable rcgulati<ms which are specifically designed to
make* observation diffiiadt. And with the faiiure to outwit.

""Physical Phknomkna ” of the Seance :ni

the in(‘(liuni the illogical verdict is only too often reached
that lu r claims to supernatural powers must be true.

All the leading mediums who have been seriously investi-
gated hav(‘ bet‘n exposed as frauds at one time or another.
Nc^vertheless it is still argued that proof of fraud is not
necessarily dis|)roof of supernatural faculty. The psychical
res(‘areh(‘r oft(*n (*x])(*cts us to believe* that, although the
nu*dium is detected on numerous occasions practising
conjuring tricks, sujxTiiatural powers may have been dis-
j)layi‘d on those* occasions when the investigators failed to
see liow the ‘‘jihenoniena ” were brought about. The
tendentiousm ss ol‘ su(*h an argument is clear ; Moll, Jastrow,
Podmore, Dessoir and (iulat-Wellenburg have all jiointed
this out, and all possessed a wide knowledge of the literature
and practice of spiritualism.

IVrhaps not so surjirising is the rejection of the spiritualis¬
tic inlerpretati(»n of the physical phenomena of the seance
room by the most inhdligent psychical researchers. While
the medium maintains that it is by the help of her ‘‘ spirit-
control '' that sh(‘ produces the phenomena ’y the psychical
researcher often holds that th(* spiritualistic content of the
medium’s utterances is due to umxmseious automatism,
and that the supernatural pow(*rs purportedly exhibit(‘d are
due to the mediunrs own "" paranormal ” or "" psychic ”
faculties. In point of fact, both the sjiiritistie utterances
and the accompanying ‘"phenomena” are quite easily
explained by the simph* hyf)othesis of conscious deeej>tion.
There is good n*ason to believe that many mediums do
induce a state of psyoliologieal automatism, but this is by no
means e(*rtain in the case of any professional ‘"physiear’
medium.

Th(‘ tricks used by mediums to produce the phc iiomena
of “ materialisation ” have been described too often to war¬
rant further r(*petition here. “ Ketoplasm ”, “ teleplastic
mat(‘rialisations ” and “ ideoplastic* pseudopods ” are some
of the terms used by Riehet, Sehrenck-Notzing and Geley to
describe such manifestations. But these spirit-substances,
whieli photographs reveal as wJiite dougliy stn'ams issuing
from the mouth (sometimes regurgitated cheese-cloth), the
nose and (*ven the genitals of female mediums, are no longer

8rj Till*: PsY(M!i)ixK;v of tiik Occult

fashionable subjects of investigation in the more serious
psychical research circles. One enterjjrising medium even
iiid her ectoplasm ” in a hollow comb which searches
previous to the seances for a long time failed to reveal.

As an e xample of the ridiculous lengths to which investiga¬
tors of the psychic prostitute their intellects, Iutc is an extract
b\' Dr. S(*hrcnek-Notzing, who in many ways w^as a highly
gifted and intelligent psychologist:

“ With reijard to the pieces of paper found in Paris and London,
wt* liiive no o<*<*iisioii to doubt that even paper-like substances can
f)e niateriiilised (by the medium), as can substances of the nature of
eau/,e veiling; and cotton, ineludinff the morphological structure of
tlie weft, folds sewn in, ete.

'•Just us traces have repeatedly been left of the pure, organic-
teleplaslie substance, so may similar fragments of the materialised
products, textile or cellular, have been left behind.”’

The production of spirit-forms provides an amazing
e\ampl(‘ of the seoj)e and eompleteness of s(‘lf-deeeption
which may occur when the individual is under emotional
stress. Men as well as women have been known to recognize
a d(‘ad father, mother, sisttT or cousin in the figure of a thinly
disguised merlium who, her head wrapped in a white scarf
or v<‘il, is sc‘en moving around in the gloom of the seance
room. Many descriptions have eom(‘ from competent
observers wlio have looked on aghast at the success of tlur
most flagrant deceptions: before their eyes stands tin;
patently disguised figun* of the medium, and with each
insignificant change of apparel a bereaved mother or daughter
or wife cries out a heart-nmding greeting to one long since
dead and buried. The illusion, brought about by frustrated
longing and the ov<TwheIniing will to believe, is complete.
One is inevitably reminded of the collective hallucinations
that ha\'e occasionally occurred at moments of religious
fervour.

One form of spirit-evoking magie was the “ ectoplasm
box In 1987 the New York World Telegram published a
series of articles on Harlem voodoo, amongst which was a
description of an ‘‘ ectoplasm box ”, manufactured by a small

* Sehreiick-Xot/ing, Proc. S.P.K., 1028, p. 000.

“Pjiysic’At. Phenomkna ” of the Seaxce

313

factory in Chicago, costing about fifteen dollars, by means
of which a smoky shape, roughly resembling a flooded man,
floats upwards.

In 1030 Dr. E. Osty cremated a sensation by his investiga¬
tions of the well-known spiritualist-medium Rudi Schnc'idcr.
Rudi, and Jiis brother Willi, had been repeatedly and com-
preh(‘nsiv(‘ly exposed as fraudulent tricksters, yet such is
the faith of tliose imbued wnth a pencliant for the mysterious
that botii siiiritualists and psychical researchers alike con-
timu'd to believe in th(‘ possibility of their supernatural
powers. “ Ectoplasm ” and other “ teleplastic manifesta¬
tions were their main specialities. 1'hese. however, were
invc‘stigate(I by Professor Przihram of the University of
Viernra and found to be nothing more* than deceptions.

Ufitil 1030 the Schneider brothers had produced no
‘‘ plienoiTK'na ” that had not been eov(Ted by their exposures.
Rut th<‘ exp(Timents of Ostv and his son opened up a new
sph<ve of nu'diurnistic phenomena. Not since the day of
Palladino had the ‘‘ physieal phenomena of the spiritualists
attraeled so much attention anumgst suseeptible scientists
and equally sceptical psychologists. F\)r Osty reported that
Rudi Schneider was able to interrufit an infra-red beam
“ supernormally under conditions which niaiie fraud
impossible !

In a series of 77 sittings Dr, Osty, the Director of the
French ecpiivalent of the Society for Psv(*hieal Research--
the Institute M^tapsychique IniernationaU used infra-red
beams, galvanometers, ehrorionnders, a (juartz lens and
ultra-violet light in an elTort to provide eonvineing evidence
of Rndi’s psychic'' emanations. There is no doubt
whate ver that this was Osty’s main concern. Most of his
life had been sjient in psychical research. It w^as his all-
absorbing intcTcst. A perusal of his writings clearly indicates
that his approach to the subject was not dictated by an
unbiased desire for kliowledge but by a frank hope of finding
conclusive evidence of supernatural faculty. Any such
evidence coming from such a source is highly susi)ect, and it
is diflFicult to believe* that he avoided the fault, co\un\ou to
all psychical researchers, of emphasising the points favourable

314

Tuk Psych() i.()GY of tuk Occult

to his preconceived ideas and omitting or minimising those
which were unfavourable.

The suspicion surrounding the experiments of Osly and
his son was not niitigat('d by the results reported by Pester-
mari and (iatty of the Society for Psychical Research, wJio
investigat(‘d Schneider with infra-red apparatus four years
later in 1034. None of the eflecds reported by Osty was
observed. The usual excuse j)ut forward for all such failures
is that the medium’s powers W(‘re on the wan(\ In one se nse
this is generally true* f<»r with increasingly ('ilieienl means of
investigation the m(‘diiim finds it increasingly dillieult to
produce liis jdienomena for very obvious reasons.

Osty’s expeTinuiits witli Kudi Schneider tejok j)lace in
the dark. Apart from the usual hanel and fe)ot controls
luminous pate*he\s were placed on th(‘ medium’s person wliieh
would indicate his movements. This is se‘areely an auspicious
beginning for an allegedly seieadifie investiga,tie>n, for such
conditions of e'ontrol pre^sent little diflieulty to an expeTieaiced
conjuror.

When in trance Se*hneider’s rate* of breathing ave raged
over 200 respirations a minute as eompare*d with tl)e nortnal
of fifteeai. At times the* rate of l)reathiFig rose to nearly
three hunelred. Osty assumed that such sustained hy|)errK)ea
was impossible for the normal iiieiividual and adduced it as
evidenet* of the supe rnormality of the* medium’s trance state.
In point of fact B(*sterman and flatty showed that it could
be imitated without diflieulty. This is something which
Osty could (*asily hav e verified for himsi‘lf. That he n(*gl(‘eted
to do so is a good indication of his approach to the
investigations.

However, the crux of the Osty experiments lies in Schnei¬
der’s reported ability to interrupt an infra-red beam. The
beam was only partially interrupted, not wholly, as would
have been the case if a thick solid object W(*pe interposed.
Furthermore the interruption varied rhythmically in time
with Schneider’s rapid breathing. More curious still, the
flashlight photographs revealed no discernible cause of the
interruptions. Osty explained this by saying that an

invisible substance ” was responsible !

“ Pjiysicai. Phknomena ” OF THE Seance ^315

()stv‘s report whs, superficially, an impressive one. Pro¬
fessor Julian Huxley wrote :

“ Ttie experiirients, of which a full record is ^iven in llic Hevnc
Meiapsychique for 10.^2 seem (jonelusive. . . . Taking them at
Iheir fa(?e value, ttiey would seem to prove tliat under certain
(H>nditions certain Juunan Ix'ings are capabh* of giving out an eman¬
ation of a type wiiich is new to science.” ‘

Since that (lat(‘, how(*\'(T, various diserepaiicies have come
to light which throw th(' whole of Osty’s experiments into
doubt. Harry Price made a j>roh)nged investigation of
Riidi Selin(‘ider and ])ro\ed (‘onelusiv(‘ly that the m(*dium
resorted to trickery wlien tie tielii^ved tiimself to be un¬
observed. *

In mattiTs pertaining to tlie ])syehi(‘ Osty has loo often
showui in the past, d(‘spit(‘ som(‘ intelleidual ability, evidence
of an ainat(‘uristi and uneritieal approaeli to liis subject—a
t(‘ndenev to which most psychical ri si^areliers are prone.
Tliis, tak(‘n together with Hudi Schneider’s record of detected
fraud and his subse<iuent failure under stri(*t(‘r (‘xperimental
conditions, makes it (tillieult to arrive at any other eonelusion
than that tlie medium a(‘hievtd Iiis novel sue(.*ess tlirough
his long (‘xperienee intiu* art ofdeeeption and prestidigitation.

Turning from Osty's exp(*riments with Hudi Schneider,
wliieh repr(‘S(‘nt something out of the usual in tin way of
inediumistie invi'stigations, tliiTc* arises tlu' j^robkan of how
th(‘ ordinary physical medium manages to deet ive his
(or her) audiences.

t'ontrary to gem'ral belief, conjuring is not jirimarily a
question of tricky manipulation ami concealed deviei^s.
These two factors ari‘ eomj)l(d(‘ly subordinatr to the difficult
art of artlessly misdincting tlu' obserxar's attention at
CTitieal moments. TIk' first task of tlie jihysieal ” medium,
like the conjuror, is to misdirect the attention of lua* sitters
or investigators. Put, unlike the conjuror, she must also
be on constant watch for those inevitable moments of
non-attention during the course of the seance in order to
take advantag(‘ of tlu in when they occur.

The Week-Em! Umnv, a, 19^2, }). aoa.

' Set* I Viet*, II., liuUi Schuvhkr : a Sclrntific Kjvintinatiofi nj his
Mvdimniihip with Hudi Scfmvider, Hulletin of tin* Xat. Eiih. of
Psychieiil Itescareh, llKia.

.Sir» Tin: Psvi’iioLociV of the Oc'oui/r

The clever niediiini combines the d(‘xtcrity and psychology
of both the conjuror and the pickpocket. Both for the
conjuror and for the medium sleight-of-hand consists mainly
in the correct use and swift aj)plication of certain psycho¬
logical principl(‘s. This is fundamental to most types of
conjuring trick, an<i in relation to this fact manual dexhTity
be(H>m(‘s (‘iitircly secondary, and with a great many tricks
is (‘ven unnecessary. The medium and conjuror, by their
different types of ‘"patter", keep the* attention of their
observers directed awav from tlie real points of importance.
The‘ir whole act consists in making the observer draw^ in-
ftTcnccs whicli would b<* [urfeotly valid under normal erondi-
tions but eompletclv misle^ading uneha* tlios(‘ in <ju(*stion.

The mc'dium's life in r(‘lation to he r “ sitters consists
of s[)('aking and acting in consonanf‘e with the* part she* is
call(‘(l Uf)e)n to play at her se'ancts. The conjuror, on the
other hand, only has to act his |)arl wlien on the stage. The
nu'dimn has the* advantage* in that she* is able to build up
the €^xpe*ctations and play on the* intere'sfs and e‘motions e>f
her clients betwae*!) (*ae*h se*ane*e. She eloe‘s her be*st to
mould their Indicfs and meaital e)utle)e)k se) that, unknown to
her sitteTs (e)r investigators), their atte‘ntion loses its e*ritical
edge and th(*y be'come e‘vcr more snse*eptible* to the constant
flow' of misleaeiing ide*as and sugge stieais.

Like the conjuror the medium directs the* attention tei
w'hat she eloes not do ; what she ])re tcnds to do she* may
refrain from actually doing: anel what she actually doe*s
she doe^s at a mom<*nt wdien her owai attention is oste*nsibly
directc'd elsewhere. If, for cxam[)le*, a (*(>njuror wash(‘s to
distract the audienc(*’s attention for a sece)n(i from wJiat his
right hand is eloing he* mav give* a ce)ui)l(* e>f taps wnth a W7)e)de‘n
hammer with his left hanel, on the suppe>se‘d j)re‘text of testing
the solidity’ of the particular object with which he* pre)pe)ses
to eleme)nstrate his sleight-of-hand. For that one* second
all eyes in the auditorimn instinctively switch to the* hipping
hammer. That scce)nd is usually suflicient fe)r the conjuror’s
purpose*. And it is all de>ne witli the most natural air in the*
world.

The medium whose* obj(*et it is to jirexluce “ physie^al
phenomena ” has to misdire»et her sitters’ attention from those

'' PjIVSH’AL PhKNOMEXA ” OF THE SeAN(’E ;317

fiKHKK Uvrrs d(*si^fK‘(l to free? a hand or foot from th(‘ control
of her inv^estigators ; by her talk, by her exclamations of
alarm, surprise, pain, annoyance, bad-temper or amusement,
by various pretexts of discomfort or grumbling at the way
she is b(*ing controlled, by false mov(?ments, and by her own
pretend(‘fl observations of phenoriKMia ” which have* not
occurred. If all this fails sh(‘ may revsort to direct orders
from lur familiar-spirit, who usually compares the seance,
wliitJi, of course, lia.v<^ to be obeyed. If she wishes to
practise substitution of hvr feet she will make guilt-laden
mov(‘menls of her liands. In fact, her devices, like those of
the conjur<»r, arc limitless.

I r<‘r ^rejitest accomfilishTnent of all is this, that sh(‘ knows where
everyoiK* is putting his attention. If you should look at tiie eritieal
place, nothin^Ji would ha])[)en there. Hut she is a eonsuinrnate mis¬
tress of all the arts of how to direct your attention from the eritieal
place. If she wants to do something with her hands, she bids you
l)e careful that you have a ^ood control of the feet. If she >vants
to slip h(‘r foot on yours so as to get the heel where the toe has l>cen
and ])ut the toe on the other foot, she will make n^ystie passes in
the air in front of your eyes, and at each stroke of her hand, slij)
goes the foot a slight motion which is virtually (*ertiiin that you
w'ill not notice. A jerk in one place covers a lesser jerk in anoliier.
She is a supreme eluder."*

If the light is sullicicnlly bright for tlu^ mcdiuni’s sittiTs
to s<‘C, tlu'n she will make more use of her table, her skirts,
and her cabinet curtains as serct ns. If that proves insulli-
ci(‘nt th('n she will juovc Ikt body or even those of her con¬
trollers into the position most advantageous for that purpose.
Her sitt(TS are forbidden in any event to look under the
table for distrustful humans soon alienate the sensitive
spirits !

Since the crux of the mediunfs performance dej^ends upon
getting a hand or foot free without being observed, what are
the means usually adopted ? Here, to begin witli, is a
description by the conjuror Houdiui of one of the methods
employed :

“■ The medium's shoes are csperially made for her in such a way
that by a certain prt^ssure on the sole it is possible to withdraw the

* Jastrow, J., T/ie Psychology of Convictiony p. 119.

:ns

Thk Psyc ii<)1,(k;y of 'ruK Occui/r

j'rcatfr portion of tlic shoo, with the foot, fnun a fals<* front. This
front is made of inotal and padded. When the inediiiin asks the
eoniniittee to plaee their feet on tiers she inak(‘s sure tJiat they do
not overreaeli tiie portion stie <‘an wit tat raw from. In tiie full ^lare
of the litrlit the investijrator thinks lie feels the medium's fo(»t seeurely
held under iiis own ami as he eannot sei* under the table tlie medium
has tJie full use of her foot to prothiee manifestations."*

Many nudiuins who practise “ Icvilatiii^^ tables w(‘ar
soft leather boots or shoes with wide thin flang(‘s on tlie solos
to enabl(‘ them to net a o<>od piirohasi' on th(‘ tabU' le^. Some
use (levi(*es such as a small hook rast(‘ned to a tape whieh runs
over th(‘ shouldi r under the out(T elothin^ and mad(‘ fast
to a belt at th(‘ medium's baek. Amongst those* mediums
who are aeeust<mi<‘d to naive* elientele* any tyjK* of d(^vie(‘
may be e?npIoy<‘el. To those me‘diums. he)W(‘\'(*r, whei have
maele a speeiality e)f bein^^ inve*stioate‘el by seientists or
senii-levirne^d se)eieties sue*h ele‘viees are* a <^n>od deal U*ss
eeuumem. Here the prime nf*ee‘ssity is to insure* the re'lease
e)f a hajid eir feieit or both from the* e‘e>?»tre>l e>f e>ne* e)f the* e'ein-
tre)llers whe) sit on e ither siele eif her. This is not ne‘arly so
diffieult as it may aj)pe*ar. In fae*t, in the* eibsenrity e)f the
average* s&ii(*e re>e)m anel with obe‘elie*nt sitters. e‘ve*n the
rneist e‘XpeTiene*ed ean re*le*ase a hanel f)r feKit without be'ing
eletc'etenl by the twe) e*ontrollers.

The simj)lest me ans of re-leasing a foe)t is fe)r the* medium
te) have shoes with steuit teie *e*aps ; she* simply vvithelraws the
foeit from the shoe while the* eemtre)llers emri foot is pre\ssirig“
firmly eleiwn on the te)e*-e*a{). While* this is happe*ning the
medium may tell he*r e-eintreillers to grasp he*r wrists as tightly
as the\v wish. This distrae*ts the atte‘ntion anel during the
brie*f diversion tlms caused the fe)e)t is ejuiedly slipped eiut of
the she)e.

If the* substitutiein e)f e)ne foot for two is practiced then
tlie meelium ge*m*rally pretends that she has a erorn, or on
some similar pretext refuses tei have her controller’s shoes
pre-ssing ein teip of her own. Instead she insists that at l(*ast
one of her shoes shall be pressing down on one* of her control*

• Uoudini, H., .1 Mrigidan Anitnig the Spirits. The Case for and
against Psychical Btdief, p. 324, edited tiy V. Murchison, Clark
University Press, Mass., 1927.

PhYSK’AI, PjIENOMENA ” OF THE SeANCE

819

lers’, on the assumption that if she liftc'd her foot off then the
latter would b(* able to deteet the sudden (*eHse of j)r(‘ssur(?.

Havin^r arnniti[(‘d mutters thus far tli(‘ medium puts on an
act vvliieh may vary from small restless movements of her
whol<* body to a realistic* irnitation of a lu rvous liysterieal
attaek. fler eontinual restl(*ssness and little shiftinj^s of
her f(*et soon [)rovid(‘ an opportunity of placun^ the hec'l of
her left shoe on the same part of her controll(‘r’s shoe wh(Te
her ri^ht toe* had b(‘(‘n pressin^^ a half second Ixddn*. Thus
with one foot doln^ service for two. both controllers still
belie ve* thal (*aeh of fhe m(*diiim’s feet are where th(‘y outrht
to be. In actual fact the medium has one foot free with
which to produce phenomena

The same procedure* is used for making one hand do service
for two. if her right wrist is grasped by the controller on
her right then she insists that her hand be controlled ”
only by the pr(*ssure of her fingers on the hand of the other
controller. In tlu* dark it is not difficult for the medium to
substitute one hand for two - U*aving her dupes to believe
that they still control both.

The limitations of such substitution tricks are that the

phenomena ’’ brought about by such means usually occur
only within a radius of a few feet of the m(*dium. Vet in the
following chapt(*r w(? shall sec* that such methods may achieve
results apparently out of all proportion to the means em¬
ployed. We now turn to the cleverest of all “ physical ”
mediums, Eusapia Palladino, whose career is regarded by
many psychical researchers and spiritualists as the test case
for the existence of sup(*rnormal faculties ir. the “ physical
medium.

Chapter Twenty-one
El S API A PALLADINO

M HE “ pliysical phononirna of tlir spiritualist si*aru*r-
room still atlraoi the serious attention of many intelligent
people. In an age of scientific enlightenment this may ap¬
pear surprising, the more so since the “ phenomena of the
spiritualists would, if accepted, hurl to the winds the most
cherished principles of modern physics ar>d biology. The
0 ]ie person wlio might have been able to lay (*laim to th(‘
perpetuation of shamanism as a serious field of study in
modern civilised countries was a Neapolitan medium who
answered to the mellifluous name of Eusapia Palladino.

Palladino is still an enigma to many. To most psychical
researchers her case presents eogtait evidence that human
beings can wield supernatural powers—can move objects
at will without physical means and c*an create substance by
the power (»f thought.

The present day rc^putation of Palladino in psychical
research circles rests mainly on a series of eleven seances held
at Naples in 1908, The inv^estigators, Messr:. E(‘ilding,
Baggally and Carrington, produced a lengthy verbatim record
of the stances which, taken alone, present a strong prima
facie case for the supernatural powers of Palladino, although
Podmore effectively criticised it on a number of grounds. It
is time, however, that the Palladino myth was finally ex¬
ploded, and with it one of the main bases for belief in the
supernormal phenomena of the stance room. It is with this
object in mind that the present chapter is undertaken.
However strong a case may be made out for the genuineness
of the 1908 seances, they take on a different aspect when

320

The author demonstrating one of the several methods used by diviners of ’^iihterranean

water and minerals.

< SW ("hnpter ‘22)

Pi*ATi: IX. How THK Divining Rod is Hkm> (II)

The same method as in the previous illustration, from a different angle.

Eusapta Palladtno

viewed against the background of detected deception and
fraud which litt(?rcd Palladino’s career. H(‘re then is the
story of Palladino as tlie clever charlatan she really was.

llnleUered, of obscure origin, and bred in the shuns of
Naples, Eusapia Palladino was for years tlu* object of in¬
vestigation by some of th(‘ most (rninent scientists and
savants of Europe and America. JJorn in tlur year 1854,
her eruption into the scientific^ world b(*gan with a lettcT in
1888 from Prof(‘ssor Chiaia of Xapl(‘s to Professor Lombroso,
famous criminologist and ])syehiatrist. Hy 181U Lombroso
had become convinced other supernatural pmvers arid withi]i
four years Palladino had converted many notabl(‘ men f>f
science in Italy, llussia and France to the same belief.

Early in life Palladino married a travelling conjuror,
w’henee sh(' doubtless picked up the knowledge, common to
all conjurors, that eemjuring is mainly a epiestion of distract¬
ing the atteaition and misleading the ex])eetation (>f the
audience. Py lempe rament Pallaeliuo was ide‘ally suite d for
this. Possessing a strong j)eTsonality and a gift for talking,
she soe)n learned that the art of lulling suspieae>n lay in making
friends aiiel keeping the re spe'ct of lier investigators ; they,
for the most part, witi* psyehologie^ally ])roelisposed to aee*(‘pt
her e'lainis to supiTnatural j)()wers though Ihefy rejected her
spiritualistic iiiterpretatiou of them.

Her “ pheaiomeaia ” in the main })urported to ee)nsist e)f
moveanents and levitations of a light table anel other smaller
objects without the interventiou of any physie*al means.
Otlier “ phenomena ” were the appearance e)l s])irit hands
and forms, spirit raps, knocks and thumps -on artiedes of
furniture or on the persons of ht^r sitters, movements of
curtains, and breezes issuing from her forehead. The master
of ceremonies was an elusive spirit she called Je>hn King

Palladino’s suee'ess lay in the simplicity of her performances
and a sound knowledge of the psychology of her “ open-
minded ” investigators. It was only when she came into
contact with a harder-headed type of investigator, who
assumed from the start that it was fraud throughout and
acted on that assumption, that she finally came to grief.

Tin: Psychology of* thk Occn/r

;J22

The first serious investigation of Palladino took place in
1893 in Milan, under the auspices of some famous Italian
scientists including Schiaparelli and Lombroso ; they pro¬
nounced in favour of her genuineiu‘ss. How far these
Italian savants w(T(' prepared to go to find out the jihysio-
logical principles involved in producing supernatural pheno¬
mena, is exeinjilified by the reports of their clinical examina¬
tions. Lombros(», Morrelli and others hit upon tlu* theory
that Palladirio’s phenomena were due to a redirection of
fundamental sex energy. They nportt^d tiuit Ikt menstrual
seen'tions increased at the eomnKaicement of her tran(‘es,
that she had a particular zone of hypcTaesthcsia, especially
in her ovaries, and that when “ phenomena " were about to
occur it was sometimes aeeonipanietl by voluptuous erotic
sensations followed by genuine orgasm. IIow' far such
re}M>rts are to be relied on is protdematical. It is dilVieuU
to imagine under what conditions they w(‘re veriti(‘d.

In th(‘ following yiar, in 1894, Palladino repeated Ikt
success with Professor Rich(‘t, the famous Fnaich physio¬
logist, at Paris. Myers, Oehorowicz and Sir Oliver Lodge
also att(‘iidt‘d. An incident mentioned by (irassct in his
Ocailiifiinc serves to throw' considerable light on that elermmt
of h(T character which enabled her to carry on undisturbed
by temporary setbacks. She had b(*gun to produce soim*
spirit-raps with the aid of her familiar spirit, John King ”.
Ochorow’iez obscTved that the medium was producing them
by striking her shoe against the table. When Oehorowicz
pointed this out she dn.^w back a little, deni(‘d it, and then
added;

“ It is strange, all tlic same ; something is pusJtiiig my foot lo-
W'iirds the tal)Jc. Scntil<*! Smtito!” Nn)rrf/ti lcss sJie was
so sure of the phcfuanerion,” Ochorozvicz tliat she in¬

sisted on rny tying her foot to one of mine t)y means of a <*ord. And
wlien I did so, I felt that she drew the cord by turning lier foot round ;
she turneil it in such a rnaiinc»r as to he aide to strike the talde wiUi
her heel. It was evident to everyone except to lierself.”

It is amazing that after such exhibitions the investigators
did not wash their hands of Palladino. This was by no means
the first time that she had been detected practising her
tricks. The explanation lies in the fact that the investigators

ErsAPiA Palladixo

lipId th(‘ theory, from which Palladino was not averse, that
th(‘ productiofi of spurious phenomena in no way invalidated
her claim to he nblv to produce the ^renuine supernatural
article. That this argument is cjuitc specious will l)c sliowm
f\irther on. h\it it still predominates in the arguments of the
“ believers

In point of fact Palladino's investigators were not r(‘ally
investigating her plienonicna'' at all. What tliev were
all lioping to do was to f)rove her phenomena ” authentic.
Tlu ir will to believe was continually in conlliet with
their “ will to know Hichet. Myers and Lodg(‘ all bcli(A^ed
in the unseen spirit world and died steadfast in their belief.
This battle ludween th(‘ unconscious primitivi* t(‘ndcncy
towards mysticism and the consciously felt desire for know'-
ledge is the bn eding ground of psychical n‘searchers. To
th(* av(‘rage psychical r(‘searcher Palladino''s career provides
serious food for thought on issues aU'eeting the whole of
sci('iicc and philosoj)hy ; to the av(‘rage psy(‘hologist that
sa.m(‘ career provid(‘s an object lesson in the vagaries and
j)aradoxcs of dece|jtion.

Itiehet provides an cxc'cllent examph* (.)f a great scientist
succumbing to the insidious yearning for mysticism. lie
himself had commented upon the suspiciousness of the Palla¬
dino seances of and had quite accurately observed that
to the i‘xtt‘nt to wdiieh the eonditions were made rigid, the
phenomena decn^ased Yet before long his will to believe
had again assumed the dominant position in his mind. His
story has betai repeated over and over again in the annals
of psy(*hical research.

Th<‘ objective* investigator in psychical research is rare.

“ There are, it is true, eases of originally erediiloiis persons going
to seainres with tlie tirin intention of forming an objeetive opinion
aiul being eonvineed. TJiis, liowever, does not invalidate the fact
that in cases of this kind the desire to be eonvineed and ex|K*etation
(piiekiy overcame ineredulity, because sueh inerednlity was flaunted
with the aim of <*oiieealing a profound rt‘pre.ssed need for faith.”^

The stances in Italy and Paris took place for the most
part in complete or semi-darkness and Palladino had little

fastiglioiii. A., Adventures of the Mind, pj).

324

Thk Psychology of thk Occ ri/r

difficulty in imposing her tricks upon her learned investiga¬
tors. The precise nature of these tricks was fully ascertained
at the Cambridge s<5ances of 1895 lield under the aegis of
My ITS ; tliey were precisely those which had been predicted
by Dr. R. Hodgson two years previously. By deliberately
faking loose conditions of control Palladino was d(‘eeived
into taking chances which she would otherwise not have don(\
and in the Journal of the S.P.R. * the investigators publish(‘d
their coiu'lusion that Palladino habitually contrived to g('t
her hantl or foot free and that the bulk of her “ plienoinena ”
were to be explained in this way. Thus Myers wrote ; I
cannot doubt that w(‘ observed nnich conscious and drlibera l('
fraud, of a kind which inus! have* needed long {iraelise to
bring it to its present level of skill

Myers and the S.P.R. refused to have anything further to
do with Eusapia for the next thr(‘e years. Hut in 1S9S
further sr^ances were held at the instigation of Prof(\ssor
Riehct with the r(*sult that Riehet, My(Ts and bodge r(‘-
afliined their belief in the sujiernatnral powers of the meciiuni.
Palladino’s heyday had begun. For the* ne xt ten y(‘aTS site
was an international celebrity. A (*onsiderable numlxa* of
the most eminent scientists of th(‘ Victorian era wenr con¬
verted wholelieartedly to the new^ seientilie study ol* su|kt-
naturalisrn. The belief in magic had gairu'd i\ new' lease of
life though it was dignified by other names with (h’cek
prefix(\s and suffixes.

HetwTcn 1905 and 1907 th(‘ voice ol Palladino w'as h« ard
calling upon her familiar spirit, tin* elusive* “ John King
to help h(‘r lift the talilcr w^ith his psychic power at seanec*
after seance, held (*ither under the auspices of the Institut
General Psyeliologiquc dc Paris or b(‘fore cf>minitU'es of
distinguished professors at Naples and Turin. The Italians
reported her performances as impressive but liad to admit
that in each case when really conclusive ti*sts wttc arrange d,
the safeguards protecting their test devices w^erc either
damaged or (Jse the ‘‘ phenomena ” ceased. Scaling tapes
were* torn away, the lid of a cardboard box was forced off
and a cloth covering was ripped, demonstrating Palladino’s
determination to get at the devices they were intended to

■ October «nd November, 1895.

Eusafia Rvlladixo

325

protect. “ John King ”, Palladiiio asserted, was responsible
ibr these outrages.

Y( t despite these setbacks Palladino’s investigators did
not give up hope of finding some really conclusive genuine
ph(‘noniena if it was at all possil)le. The French investigators
at this jnriod, the most distinguished of whom were the
( iirit s. exc^elled themselvx^s at. this game and devoted forty-
thre(‘ long seances to this end. The resultant report provides
a good (‘xample of the ludicrous lengths to wtiich the scientific
iiiind is pn'pan^d to go when under the innuenee of suptT-
naturai l)eli(‘fs. Here is what Podmore wrote in 11)10:

“ 'Fhe (’oiuiuillce then turned their attention ti> Eusapia's person.
'Fiiev tested lier nuMiiory, her reasoninj^ powers, li(*r ketainess ol' sigJit,
and her visual and auditory rea<‘tions j^t‘nvrally ; they me:isnr(*d
Jier rate of resjiirat ioii and test(‘d her hyperaestJa sia ; thi y employed
th<‘ dynaiiKMueter, th<‘ sphygiiiojrraph, tlu* j>neiimogra]>li, and Hallion
and ('omt^*’s plt'lhisinographie tube: th(‘V took lier ieinpeiature ;
I hey niadt* nr<»seopie analyse^; tliey applied Ihermoseope^ and
♦jah anometers : tJiey mad<* a eJienii<*aJ analysis of lh(‘ air in the
seaiiee-room, and M. Clurie look some trouble to draw off the air
behind the eurlain to see whether it was ionised. And after all
lhes«‘ labours, the results of wJii<»h are to he s(‘en in many pai{t‘> of
eiirvi‘s and tal»lt‘s, (h<*v fournl that Eusapia is just like everybody
else.”*'

'riio French in\'(*stigiitors gave Palladino t‘very elmiiee
to carry out eonelusive t(‘sts of h(T supernatural '' tele-
kinetic ' [)oweF'.s. yet despite deinonstrations of real skill
slie raiU‘d but only just. A little l(*ss watchfulness on
behalf of some nuMubers of the (‘onmiittee and slu' might
W('ll ha\e siK'eeeded. In their report the C'ommittte ob¬
serve tliat then' was no doubt that Palladino list'd trickery,
for slu* had btt'ii detected using a liair to move light and
dt'lieately balatiecd instruments. Yt't despite this the
Committee's report was still sympathetic to her claims
on the grounds that certain inovenicnts of objects were
puz/Jing, and it ('ven went so far as to offer an excuse for
lier fraud, on grounds of old age and the profit motive.
The will to believe still predominated.

So far Palladino had more than managed to hold her own.
Her supporters ininimisi'd or forgot her setbacks and mag-

^ Podmore, E., The Seivvr Spirituaiisrn, pp. 107-108.

8‘26

Tin: PsYrii()LO(;v ok thk Ot’('Tn;r

nifieci her successes. Fur many years the N(‘apolitan had
had som(‘ of Europe’s most nolabie savants sitting in circles
and holding hands amongst a jumble of scientific equipment
in ever chan^irijyf conditions of li^litin^, strictly dictated
by herself or by Ikt “ s{)irit-control ”, and which averaged
a <lcep twilight ^looni. And in 1908 she conduct(‘<l the
series of seances wtiieh led to the Feildin^-Ha^^gally-C'ar-
rington report and which may be regarded as the high-
spot of h(T ear(‘or.

It Jiad occurr(‘d to many inv'cstigators that t[n‘ only
way of testing Palladiiufs claims was to liave her l(‘vita-
ting table and her cabinet insulated from all [lossibh^ /rger-
dcrmiin. Wlienever tliis was done, all ])hcnomcna ”
ceased or Palladino refused. und(‘r a. vari(‘ty of pretexts,
to carry on with the s6ince. This is wher(‘ so many of the
investigators allowed thems(‘lves to lx* (le(*eiv(‘d. for by
giving way on this point they allowttl Palladino to control
the (‘onditions of the tests. Tin* investigators rwu ap¬
peared afraid that Palladino would walk out in a hulT if
the controls b(‘cam(‘ too effectiv(‘. It is evidcad that they
subordinated their reason to the eombim'd elf(‘el of tin*
m(‘dium’s personality, lu‘r claims to supernatural powers,
and tlieir own desire to believe in Jut claims which tht v
regarded as theor(*tiea11y possible; most seitadists decry
the jiossibility of magic and j)oirit out that whcr<‘ver
ignorance exists, beli(*f in the supernatural flourishes along¬
side of it.

Palladino’s jurformanees were in themseivt's susp<‘et
by virtue of th(*ir limitations. Tliat they were dm* to
conjuring could well liavc betai d(*due(‘d by aiiyoiu^ wln>se
mind had not been subjected to the insidious projiaganda
of sup(Tnaturalism. Her phtaionuaia wer(‘ usually limited
to witliin a radius of three to four feet of her pcTson. Look¬
ing under the table* was usually fe)rbidden. HeT sitters
had to tie)ld hands eir jilaee the*m on the table* to pre*ve‘nt
any trickery. Isolat(*d obseTvers standing nearby wen*
ned permitted. Her feet must re*st on those e»f her eemtrol-
Icrs and not vice versa. The hands of h(*r ce)ntrollers might
not grasp lier wrists }>ut emiy maintain contact by jiressun*.
The light varied from teital darkness to a crepuscular gloom.
Ofte n the* sitters had to talk ame>ngst themsedves, rende*ring

Eusapta Pam.adixo

:i27

rc)n(Tntrat(*(l observation impossible. The table, her lon^?
skirt, and the eabinet curtains s<TV(‘d as ettective senetjs.
Above all there was the continual movenuMits of her hands
and feet, over wliich pro])er control was seldom allowed—*
all these factors w(*r(‘ und(*rstandable on tlu* simple hypo¬
thesis of conjuring.

Palladino varied and re laxed one or more of these* rc-
strictie)ns from time to time, l)ut always at lieT own dic¬
tation or witli her previous e*e)nsent. In general they
remained the standard practice e)f her searic‘es anel by in¬
sisting e)n th(*ir observance she* retaineel e'ontrol of the
investigating conditions. In Kuroj>e her investigators weTc
gentlemen and adhcrcel te> a strie*t code* of ('tiejuettc. Any
behaviour whie*h save)ure*d e»f snoo])ing anel sj)\ ing was
anathema to them. Such honourable* behaviour was
I^elladino’s greate st shield, and when she went to America
she probably e‘xpe‘e*te*el tlie same treatm(*nt. This was
her e*hief unde)ing : for (he Ameri<*ans. tho»igh not a whit
less e*e)urte*en]s tlian their European eonfr(Te*s, eliel not mind
(‘inploying the methe)ei e)f setting a thief te) catch a thief.

The* main fallaey whiedi animated the invi‘stigate)rs of
PalladiiK) was the idea that e\hit)itions of fraud ne(*d not
exeluele the occurrence of ge'miine* ])hene)mena. Tliis
argum<*nt wo\del bo perfectly valid, if it we re certain that
sue*h a thing as a suj)e‘rnatural force' existe'el. Hut as Palla-
dino's e)wn e*ase is upheld as the* most c'ogent (*\ idence* fe)r
its existene*e, and as all other such evidence is afleeted by
(*ven ine)re suspicion than surrounels the artful \eaf)olitairs,
the argum(*nt is clearly absurel. So strong, he>wever, is
the urge towards the supernatural one*c the* individual
feels its jadl. that such logical ce)nsieleratioiis wemld }>re)-
J)ably not have we*ighed V(*ry seriously with Pallaelino’s
invcstigateirs.

We ne)W e*e)me to tlu* Feilding-Raggally-Parrington report,
the* subj(*e*t of which was the series of elcve\A seances held
in Naples in the year 1908. Like* the t'ambridge serie's,
where* Pallaeiino was expose'd as an impe)ste*r. the'se se'\‘ince\s
were inve*stigateei by re^prcse*ntatives of the Sex'iety for
Psye*hie'al Hesearch.

There is a belief in psychical re*searedi e*ircl<*s that the
1908 investigations e)f lVlladine> reache*el a high standard

32S

Tuk Psyciu)1ah;y ov tuf. Occttit

of efficiency. In point of fact they wcr(‘ cxtreiuely limited
in their s(‘o[)e. The gentlemen concerned being afraid to
give off(‘nce to the medium, Palladino retained c*ontrol
of th(' investigating conditions throughout; for Palladino’s
assumed sensitiveness was one of her greatest weapons,
llelieving as they did in the possibility of her supernatural
powers, they were bound also to believe^ in tlu^ possibility
that she sj)oke the truth wluai she stated the innumerable
conditions wliich attacherl to tlu'ir manifestation condi¬
tions. be it lioted, which invariably hamperc^d the* invest¬
igators and always offered her an excuse^ for avoiding c‘ff(‘e-
tivr controls or, if n(‘e(‘ssarv, for discontinuing tlu* seance.
Whefi these metluKls were iiH‘ff(‘(*ti\(* she could always
fall back on tlie “ sensitive ” natun* of hc‘r own self or
tliat of her guiding spirit. Signor .lohn King.

Tuder siieli eondili<ins tio investigation (‘an be (*arri(‘d
out in the pro)>er si‘nse of tlu* word, and it is not surprising
that w<‘ tiiid tlu* in\(*stigators did not atl(‘mpt to impose
a eon(*lusive test on Palladino. V(*t again, lh(‘y allowed
tlu* N(‘apolitan so to iniposi* on them that they (*ould not
utili.M* any tdolproof pre(*autious against fraud for any
length of time. One TU‘t‘d hardly [)oird out that if such
precautions had been taken the seances would have* (*nd(‘d
forthwith ; lM‘ilding, Jtaggally and Carrington had to avoid
sueli a contingency at ail (*osts if they wishe‘d them to
continue.

Under such eonelitions Pallaeliuo was in her element ;
her iiupusitors believed in the possibility of supernatural
})owers ; they were apprch(*nsive that she would walk out
on them ; and they were such real ge*ntlemen no und(*r-
haiid tricks that some other inve^stigators had tried; more¬
over they actually rcsp(*ctcd her wish(*s and fads as if they
were sincere.

To pretend that the Feilding-Baggally-Cari ington report
constitutes anything in the nature of a scientific docu¬
ment is liulicrous. For example, considerable importance
was attached to the fact that before one particular seance
Palladino was searched for trick-deviccs. The search
was carried out by two ladies, “ Signora X ” and “ Miss
Y.” We arc told that ‘‘ Madame Palladino first took off
a V>lack serge bodice and skirt of the same material and

Eusapia Pai.ladino

82»

colour. She then slipped over her head a white knitted
cotton stay-cover. She also drew off her neck a white
linen scarf a little over a foot in length and about four
inclu's wide. Next came a long dark blue petticoat and
whit(‘ embroidery round the bottom. After that she took
olT a sliort wliitc flannel one, and a pair of pink and brown
stays. She then removed a long shift of coarse white linen
and stood in what one might call a pair of grey, woolly,
divided combinations, that is to say, body and drawers,
a })air of wdiit(‘ stockings, black clastic garters under her
kiHH's, and a pair of browmish coloured boots, with heels,
7vhirh 7tr?r only huitoned by ike top button'' (author’s italics).^

As a resume of the tyiu* of underclothing worn by the
Italian middle-classes in the (.‘arly twentieth century this
doeuineni may possibly repr(*sent an iuterestiiig contri¬
bution towards the social scienc(‘s. As an exampi(‘ of how
to seai’ch mediums it fails to carry conviction. Schrenek-
Not/ing might have given the gtmtlefolk of the S.P.R,
a lesson in sear(‘hing nuMliums for lu‘ did not hesitate^ to
carry out anal and vaginal (‘xaminations if he thought it
necj ssnry. In any cviait to search a good (‘onjuror is not
so simple as it may ai)pear. The* seareluTs. misled by the
aj)paiH*nt frankness of th(‘ medium, are seldom on the
look-out for sleight of hand.

Thr argument pul forward that Baggally and Carrington
wcK (xeellent amateur conjurors and could easily have
def((*ted fraud were it practised, is (d’ little signifieanee.
S. J. Davey, for exampl(‘, who did so much to demonstrate
how "‘spirit” slate-writing w'as aehi(*ved and who was
liimself a really expert amateur eonjuror, had previously
recorded his convietion that “the idea of triekery or jug-
gliTv ill slate-writing is out of the question.” According to
Professor Jastrow' even the professional conjuror is easily
(l(*ccivcd in the gloom of the seance room “ if he have no
experience in the special kind of sleight of hand required
for th(‘ trick.” He cites the admission of the prof(‘ssional
conjuror, Harry Kcllar, “ wdio at first declared himself
unable to (‘xplaiii slate-writing as a trick, but now' can

* Feildinj;, Hag^allv and (’arrin^rton. Report on Sittings icitfi Eusapia
Pattadino, l*roe. S.lMt., XXIII, 1909, p. 505.

Till: l^SVfMIOI.OCY OF TMF. Oc’C’n.T

rrprat tin* process in a vari(‘ty of ways, and witli far tcriatcT
skill than is sliowit ))y nu'dinius/'*

According to Mulliolland alioni (‘ij^hly per (*(‘nt. of tli(‘
success of a conjuror's p(*rforniancc dcp(‘n(ls upon th<‘ util¬
isation of psycliolojry, t(ai ptT cent, upon skill(‘d inanij)ula.-
tion and the rcniaininir ton per cent upon the use of cfpiip-
nu'iil. *

In tlu‘ Xaplt s scanc(‘s tlu‘ sid)jcctivc bias of Palladino’s
inx'cslijrators is appanait from the start and tlicrt* can l)c
no doubt this was Paliadin(»'s greatest ass(‘t. J^taldiiii^
virtually admits tlic snbj<‘ctivo characUr of liis impr(‘ssions
at t]i(‘s(‘ sc'anc(‘S. Il(‘ writi-s :

‘‘ Hc-nadin^ tlic shorlliand rt^port aftiT tliis ia]>'»<‘ of
ti!n(‘, ami studyino; it critically, 1 t'an appreciate what an
absolutely dillcniit im])rcssion it must make' on the mind
of anyom* n(»t prt‘S(‘nt. . . .

Sucli was the mental s<‘t of tht‘ investi^rators that wt'
ar(‘ asked to b(*li(‘\(’ that when a liand was obsiTVid in llu*
^loom by Feildin^, Carrington and the* stc‘noj|raf)her, which
untied a bell on Palladino's head, ran^ it, ami threw i! on
tile table, it was not a lumian liand at all but on(‘ const met(al
of (‘ctoplasm "! The stenographer showed le ss (*ntlmsiasm
for the su^’cestion : he thou^lit it was cither tie- imaliiim's
liand or that of one of tle‘ inv(‘sti^ators.

Four times in all was l^alladino dct(‘ctc‘d in jiraetisint^
substitution of hands. Fodmon* suspected lh»jjfyall\ mon^
tlian the others of faulty control of the rmalium's hands
and had and makes out a ^ood case to substantiate^ tin’s ;
in his thirty pa^^e eritieisin of the Feildin^-Ha^^ally-Carrmc-
ton r(‘|)ort" 1 k‘ (a)n('lu(l(‘s : No otIuT record of the pliysieal

phcnom(‘na of sjiiritualism. it may lx* said, is of any valin*
lieside it. And yet the* recorel, as we liave seaai, is at <*ritieal
moments incomplete and at almost (‘Very point lea\'es
obvious loopholes for trickery." Only the most pr(‘judi(aal
or tliosc afVliedeal by 1h(* insidious “ will to believ'e ” could
arrive at any other (onelusion. Those interc-steal in a.

* h\ivi find Fahif in Pstfchnloffii^ N.^^ 1001.

* Encjf. Brit., Ml+T.

•/Vor. Will. llMMi, p. :i7 F

< Poetmon*, C., 77/r Xncer Spirifnnlisin, pp. 114-1 tt.

Ki saima Fai.i.adixo

more* <l(‘tMil(‘(l critifisni of the* 11)08 scauees arc advised to
read Podniorc's critical analysis referred to above.

Th(* 1008 seances rej)r(‘sent the zenith of Palladino’s
sncc(‘ss. Ther(‘aftcr h<‘r star fell rapidly, lit 1000 she
went to tin* United Stat(‘s with HenAvard (’arrin^don as
Ikt rHtrrprrurur, The A'isit was disastrous. Hie Ann riean
investigators witc se(‘])ti(*al of her <*lainis, and worse still,
tbiv eonid not lu* r(‘li(*d upon to beliave like ^n*ntlemen
at lier seances in point of fact they were downright (Us eit-
ful. Y(d tluw w(Te cunning (‘uon^li to ke(‘p their inte ntions
front fh(‘ Neapolitan. In i\ word tliey {o(»k Jier on at Ik r
own ^aine.

On Deeeinher 18tli at a seance luld at the iusti;/ation
of Professor MnnsttTber^, a youne man crept alono- the"
^rronnd halfway intei tlie* eahiiKd he'hinel Palladino. lie-
put oi^t his hand in the* ne*ar darkness anel jj^raspeel an mi-
shexl foe)t. Pallaeline) sereaineel out that lier toot had
be'en tonelieel. Hie* iin^entleinanly invest i^Mteir hael in
fae‘t e*au^dit lie>ld of her l(‘ft foot tlie* very same* feieit in fact
that Predessor Miinsterber^ had iina^ineel tei have* l>e‘en
pressing ein his own ri^ht loot all tin* while*. Worse* was
to lollow. On A])ril 17th. llie following year. I’rofesseirs
Leirel and Jastrow arran^n*el that twei youn*j me*n e*lad in
hlae*k should crawl unde r tlie* table*, sere'eneel by the* e*om-
pany e)f bystande'rs pre*senl at the* se*anee*. In IN'oiessor
.lastrow's we)rds : hVeim the*se* fave)ure*d j)e>sitie)ns tliey

observeel the* le\i(atiems. tlu*ir eyes eleise te» the left toot,
e)l* Pallaeline). whie*h preived to be the* te le-kine t ie* instru¬
ment of uplift.” One* ni' the* obse rve rs re‘pe)rte*d : I was

lyine with my fae*e‘ ein the* lleiew within riifht inches eif the*
le*ft le‘e ot* tlie table*; and eae-li time* that the table* was lifted
whe*the*r in a paidial en* a e*e)niple*te* le vitatiein, the* nie*eliunrs
lbe>t was use*(l as a pre>pe*llin^ force uyiward.""

At ane)tlie*r se-ance* the* investigators ele‘libe^rate‘ly exer-
(‘ised lax e*e)ntrol and the* phenomena ” e)e*eurre‘el abunel-
antly. Hien at a pre*-arran^ed sijrnal the^ control was
made* fully (*lle*elive*. The "" phcnoni(*na ” e*e*ase*d im?ue*eli-
ately. Palladino made e very e^lfort to threiw the obs(*rvers
oil* tliear ^uarel but to ne) avail - she iiei le>ti^e*r contre»l!e‘d

'.l:islre)\v, .1., Wish and H Zve/o///. |>. 1 Ki, .

332

The Psychology of the Occult

the conditions of the investigation. Her controllers, ex¬
perienced conjurors, gently but firmly blocked all attempt
at substitution of hand or foot.

Palladino's earecT of fraud was rapidly drawing to its
predestined close. Her soft leather boots with the wide
flanges on th(‘ soles, w’hi(‘h she geiuTally wore at her seances,
soon ceased to mystify the scientific world. \Villiani James
aptly suiuinod up tlie verdict of the faithful but disillvisioiusl
devotees of psychical rcsearcli: ‘‘Kiisapia’s type of per¬
formance is detestable if it be not fraud simulating reality,
it is reality simulating fraud.'’*

1I( T('war(i Carrington’s faith in his prologo romainod uu-
sliakon. Ilis was a faith iiulood ; more tlian ovor aro wo
in a jx)sition to osliniato iho psyoliologioal factors whioii
aidod Palladino at Iho olovon soanoos at N’aplos. Vot so
offoolivo was his work lhat to(hiy thousands regard Palla¬
dino as ono of the groat enigmas of I lie past. Such a holief
is totally irrational. In tlio early days of the Palladino
investigations Hodgson, Moll and Dessoir hail deserihed
the tricks employed by Palladino to elfeet her “ pln iio-
inena At thi' Cambridge investigation held under the
aegis of the S.P.li. their forecasts were proved eorrccl.
Fourteen years later, in New York. Palladino was .-.hown
to have scarcely varied her methods in all that time. With
the failure of the eomf)ined efforts of I’alladino and tier
believers to justify her claims th<- whole case for the jdiysieal
“phenomena” of spiritualism collapses for hers wa.s,
undoubtedly, the test case.

* JtiKru , Aw . 19Ii5, p, ‘J.S7.

Chapter Tiveniy-tvoo

WATER DIVINING AM) OTHER FORMS OF
‘‘ DOWSISG ’

A'FKK DJViMNc;, or (hmsin^ as it is j^cnerally (‘allccl
by tli<>S(‘ wlio practise it, still remains for many a fasein-
atin;.r (‘ni^n)»a- - saAourino- hotli of tlie oeeiill and tlie practical.
All ov(*r tli(‘ world the dowsing fraternity are to he found.
Their r(‘])utalion is an odd one, for they thcansclves b(‘lie\e
in oeeidt or j)seudo-seit‘ntilie powtTs ami forces which the
seientitie world rejc'cts as tiai'vi' and absurd. Ihit perhaps
the <|U('stion to wliieh the average layman (and the scien¬
tist) would Tuost lik(‘ an answer is whether or not water
divining is a possibility. The answ(‘r to such a question
naturally depends on the inter[)retation gi\A‘n to the word
“ divining.” If it is simply taken to nu‘an the detection
of underground water with tin* aid of a forked twig or
similar a])paratiis, then indeed the ('hums of the watc^
diviners arc l)y no means to be seolfed at. Hut to impute
anything o(*eult or mystical to the process of deteeting
water l)y such means would be totally wrong. There is
notliing about dowsing for water which cannot be ac'counted
for in l(Tms of j)resent day psychology.

On th(‘ (|uestion of the abilities of water diviners in general
we can do no better than to quote from the experience
of a practical Australian farmer, Mr. N. A. lloddatz of
Quetaislaiul, Australia. In the Queensland bush, he states,
writing in The Wide World magazine, dowsers or water-
diviners are almost as common as “ cattle-ticks.” The
majority of them are amateurs whom the wise man avoids
like the plague; but most districts also have a professional.

838

Tin: PsYriioL(>(iV of the Occn/r

(’ail these dowsers really find water? Writes Mr. Koddatz :

'* WitlKHit it (i(»nl)t s()iiu‘ i»r llifin cjiii, hut a ^rraf many inorr
(‘iiiTt. Soiiir fellows honestly ht'lieve they |M)ss(‘ss th(“ *i:ift, others
merely delude thernstdves, and a minority are jjist eJiarlatans. But
there remain a few star ptuformers whose records prove ineontestihly
that they are able to locate underirround streams and even indicate
pretty accuralely at what deptli the spriii}:; will he reached/'

This o])inioii (xet^llcntly sums up tli(‘ situation. l?t*lativt*Iy
i(*w dows(‘rs liave ac(|uired flu* ^uTt of heiuo able to locate
underj^Toun<l water by dowsing; tht‘ ^rr(‘at majority uu^re^ly
d(*hi(le tli(‘ius(‘l\(s tliat they (‘an.

Tli(‘ t(Tin '' to dowse '' most likely ori<rinated in the s(‘a-
bonml peninsula of (’ornwall. whither tlie use ot‘ tlit' lorki'd
rod was introduced by (hrman mincTs durino the days
of Quc(‘n Eli/.abetli in orde r to prospect for tin. The term
lias a vari(‘ly of mcaniuirs in ('ornvvalh l>nt its eonuiadion
with ore and water divination jirobably d(‘ri\'(*d from the
widespread eollo(|nialism to dows(‘ a sail,” nu'anino to
lower sail, the word bein^- borrowed to describe the* dij)pin^
action of the* divinin<r rod.

It is interesting to note that there* are relatively few
records of dowsing for xvatn’ in Weste rn Knro|)<‘ before the
eighteenth ceidurv. It has. in fact, been suggc‘sled that
tlie ns(! of the* divining rod was transferred to water-finding
with th(‘ decline of tin mining in (\»rnwa.ll. Be‘fore this
period dowsing was used almost entirely for locating min(*ral
ores such as iron.

Knropean dowsing probably reached its most effieuemt
use* in the fifte*enth century in the liar/. Mountains of (Je‘r-
rnanv, wliere jirospeetors employe'd dowsers to prosjieet
for metallie lodes. Subterranean metallie ores, as is well
known, often show easily otiservable signs of their pre¬
sence on the surface, such as discolouration and tlieir eneets
on vege tation. This is only true, however, when the ores
are* not far from the surface. The medieval dowser of met¬
allic ores undoubtedly found his serviecs nse*ful in the^
location of subterranean ores which were sullicicntly far
below lli(‘ surfaerc to rev(‘al their presence only by slight
and scarcely perceptiVile tracers; for it is these that con¬
stitute the basis of the dowser’s art.

Watkr DiviNiX(i Axn “ Dowsrxc;

The* literatiirt* of dowsingr is a vast one and to the un¬
initiated it offers a surja-isiiif^ wealth of techiiieal and seicai-
tifie terms. It slionld, how(‘ver, he einpliasised that th(‘
bulk of the tlieories, elairns and observations in dowsing
literature eonstitute some of the most portentous non-
sens(' ever print(‘(l. Any impest igat ion of the subject
must therefore }>e unelerfaken in (M>mp1ete disregard of
the \ iews of the dowsers tluanselves, for \'erv few have tin*
remotest id(‘a of the* modus (tprrandi of the-ir art. In brief,
tlie* traditie)ns ami l)e liefs involving mystie*isni and pseudo-
seientifie th(*f)rv musi be distinguished from the* aseertain-
able* faets. Tlie* laseination of elowsing for the* layman
lies in the* intriguing mixture of the* praelie*al with the*
niystieal ; so it is with a eonside‘rabIe* sense e)f re*gret that
we* hud tlie latter e*omponent t<» be* without, any valiel i'ound-
atiears.

A\'ater ami mim*ral dowsing is usually a(*eomplish(.*d by
me*ans of a fork(*el twig of seam* suitable springy wooel.
Cheiie'e* of weiod is not e'e)nfim‘el to ha/el or wille)w as tradition
woulel have* it ; metal springs, forke'el metal roels, in faet
almost anything at all has. at one time* or am)ther, b(*en
used. The traditional belief in tlm spe‘e*ial eflieaey or lia/.e*l
or willow twigs derives from tJieir allinity with wateT and
the* mistake*n assumptie)n that se)me inyste*rie)us feare eman¬
ating fre)m the water aets dire*etly u])e)n the re)el itself.

The* lielief that the water in some* ineompre‘heuisible
way attraets ” tlie rod is still large‘ly pre*valent among
de)W’S(‘rs. This is not diflieult to understand. The dowser
gen(*rally liolds tlie twin emls e>f the forked rod in sueh a
way that the*y reanain bent outwarels at an angle ; with
springy wood this bending imparts a very eousiderable
torsion aiid a low* de*gree of natural stability. A relatively
slight movement of one e)f the hamls in the right ehrectiou
re*sults in the ape‘X of tlie twig twisting streingly downw^ards
or u])wards, often with eousiderable vieilenee- the bark not
infre epiently peeling ofl' in the palm of the* hand. To any-
om^ who tries dowsing for the first time the unexpeeted
foree of tlu* rod’s motion gives vise to a d(‘ceptively convinc¬
ing sensation of the rod being moved by an extraneous
fore<‘. This illusion is jiot likely to be experienced, however,

330

The Psychology of the Occult

unless the expeetatlon of such a force is already present
in the dowser’s mind.

The movement of the dowsing rod in the Iiands of a true
dowser is but anotlier instiuiee of those subeonseiously
executed museular movements upon which we have* aln-ady
touched in tho eliapter on automatic w'riting and wliicli
come und('r the general lu'ading of motor automatism. Spell¬
ing out words and sentences by means of the pendulum,
ouija-board and table-tilting arc. in those eases where the
uunenunts are nut faked, achieved by tlie same means.
It is therefore not surprising to lind that the dowsing nal
can bi- satisfactorily employed for the same purposts.
Barrett and Besterman quote an instance of this in TIu’
Diviui)ig liod.' The method he a<lopteil is .as follows:

“ The rod is held at forehead, almost vertical. Questions
are askeil in usual tone and pitch of voice. Kor ‘ ^^ s ’
the rod moves forward and downward, h'or ‘ No ’ the
rod moves backward and downward.” .\n interesting
point is that the answers were sometimes given in morse-
code, “a tr<-mor representing ii dot, a sliarp downward
stroke the dash !”

The forlrd rod of the doxvser merely serves to register and
magnify small automatic movements of the arm and zerist
made inde))eitdentiy of the conscious X'olitimt of the operator.
The motion of the divining rod imparted by these auto¬
matic muscular movements serves to bring before the
dowser’s conscious mind the knowledge of the whereabouts
of water which he acquires subconsciou.sly. With this
the majority of educated dowsers fully agree. The poit»t
of contention arises, howev<T, over the way in which this
subconscious cognition occurs; it is this vexed qu(“stion
which has hitherto constituted the main mystery of dow'sing
})henomena. Before we go into this problem, however,
it would perhaps be convenient at this point to review
the problem of dow'sing in some of its more general aspects

* p. 200.

Plati: X. How nii; Divinino Hod is Hkld (111)
Vnuthcr coiiinionly used method of water-divinin".

Pr-ATK XT. Zknmii or E.SP " (’art»^
Wvt\ in tflcpHthy HHfl Hnin^ovanl c*XT»c*ri!nfnts.
<.SVv' ('hanfpr 24)

Tin: ArTiiKNTK'iTY or I)owsiX(;

Tiik Aittiienticity of Dowsino

A in;nj\' still hrlirvt^ nil (lowsiii^r fo he mere

siiprrstitiori iiilicrifc*(l i'roiii n pasf "I'liis is far f’roni

th(* (*as(‘. A ^roat (l(‘al of* conlnsioii on fin* siifijcff of dovv-
sin^^ is (•ans(‘(l by tin* faci tlial almost rvtayonr wlio dis¬
covers that he can obtain automatic or involuntary jno\'c-
ments with a nal or piaidulum imagines tliat he can '' divine
wat(*r. In the ^nat majority of cases then^ is no e<nin(‘clioii
bctw(*en the one tliiiif^ and th<* other. The trutli of the
matter is that ver>- f(‘w of those individuals who are able to
ac<|uirc‘ th(* gift of automatic moxcaia nts of* (he divining rod
are able to dowsi* succe ssfully for wate r. \e vertheless,
against tlie myriads who false ly beli(‘\ e‘ tiu inse hcs to j)e)ss(‘ss
the genuine gift of de)wsing. there are* a few (‘xce‘|)lional
individuals who Jiave (le‘nioiistrale‘<l be*ye)nd all de)ut)t th(*ir
ability to find water even uneler the* most inauspicious
eircumstanees.

There are many eas(‘s on re*cord wli(‘re the dowsea" lias
succeeded in locating wate'r after (‘xpeTt gee>logists had failed
to find any. Kveai today rural ilistrict (H.)uncils still resort
to the ]>rofessionnl dowser on oeeasie>n. and hundreds oi‘
excellent and well-authenticated t(‘stime>nials fre)m private
individuals and commercial firms bear witness to the value
of the dowser’s work. ' The Italian army during the Abys¬
sinian war (‘ven included among their w ater-supply eompanies
an establishment of expiTienced dow^siTs.

The geologists as a whole decry, and with considerable
justitication, the employnu nt of dowsers to find water. Vet
although the dowser’s art is uncertain and often inaccurate,
a professional geologist has summed up his experience as
follows :

“ When (loiiht exists as to whetlier sinkiiii' will yield w'ater, or
when great depths may have to be siink, the services of a water
diviner are very useful. \Vater divining is n gift; and very few'
practise tJiis art and some of tliese are not rtdiahh^ On the whole
however, iniieh relianee ean be plaeed on a lirst-c*Iass man.’'*

* See Barrett and Besterman, 7^he Divining Rod^ 102(>; also Besterman,

T., Water-Divining, 19118.

• Taylor, F. N., Small Water Supplies, p. 211.

338

ThF PSYCHOI.Or.V OF IHK OCCTTI.T

Tlie opinion of the famous physieist. Sir J. J. Thompson,
is well worth notinjr. H(‘ sets down the following interesting
anecdote :

“ There is no ilticihl of tlu* reality (»f the dowsiiifr (‘ffeet. In faet,
in many agrienltiiral distriets the d(»wser is the man Miey eall in
when they want to tind ttie rijjht place to dij» a well, and lie very
often sueeoeds. We had an (‘xainple of this at Trinity Colle»re.
The water supply to (Uie of our farms was very defective and a new
w^ell hadly wanted. At first the Senior Itnrsar, wlio was a Kellow'
of tlie Royal Soc*iety, proeetuled in the (orthodox w'ay and employed
eminent ^xeolo^ists to report on where \vv oni^ht to sink a w^ell. Their
adviee, however, di<l not lead to the diseovery of any water. Our
land a<;(‘nt said, “If I were yf>n, T w'onid try old X., wiio has found
a £TOod many wvlls in iJiis eounty and who will sink the well on the
terms * no water, no pay.’’ As tliere set‘m(‘d notJiin^ else to he done,
the Bursar employed him and lie found w'ater.'’*

Porliaps tli(‘ most suctfcssful of all wattT-diviuers has ))eeii
Major (\ A. Pogson, for wliosc services the Govenmu^ut of
Bombay had petitioned th(' Seendarv of State for India.
As ofneial WatcT-Diviner to the (Joverimn^nt of Bombay,
Major Pogson snc(*essfully passed the six montlis period of
probat ion anti remained in this post from Oetolter l92o to the
end of Deeember 1928. His stTvicies were requin-d in
coniK^etion w ith famine relief and lu* was held responsible for
the prov ision of water suppli(?s to farms and villages in some
of the most eJironieally drought-stricken areas in India. In
such areas tlie usual method of well-boring, even by the most
modern methods, generally failed.

Major Pogson’s success amply confirms thi‘ reality of the
dowsing faeulty beyond any dispute, for he operated in
“ tracts where wells sunk haphazard hav(‘ very little enhance
of striking water and where consequently nearly all such
wells result in complete and absolute failure " Ilis
appointment was not made without opposition or criticism,
but as The Times pointed out:

“ Wien the Bombay Legislative Couiuul w'as sitting ri^cently
there was much criticism of the Govenmient’s appointment of Major
Pogson as a w'atcr diviner. The facts now f>uh)ish('d show' how' siic-

• Thonifison, J. .1., Recollectitms and KeflerMonSj p. 159.

* Iiep(trt on the Work of the Water Diviner to the Government of Bombay

for the Year 1927, p. 1.

The Ae'I’iientic’itv of Dowsing

rt‘ssfiil Major Hobson Uiis been and bow billy h<‘ has jnstit*u*d bis
appointnuMit at a bij^b salary/’ *

Thc‘ following (lay tlu' Indian Journal of Engineering
coiiiiricritcd ruefully :

It. is a sofTicwJiat bitt(‘r pill to cTioiiic'crs to bt* told by an evening
(*(>nt(‘inporarv that a major is bct.trr tJiari ma(‘JLin(‘s. yt*! there is
more than a mickle of justitieation for Ibis elev(‘r iiewspajier bead.
Tb(‘ point revolves around a review of tin* work aeoomplislied by
Major To^son, the water diviner who was appointed by the (iovcTii-
ment of Hornbay in tlu* face of a d(*al of criticism. Major Po^json
can find water, it appears, wlien tin* ni;w*liim“s specially designed for
the purpose; have failed. It is an int(*n‘stin*; situation. Out of
411 we lls which ha\ e been sunk upon spots indieatc'd by Major Po^;son
only two have failed tf) produce water. It is a iifitablc ae)iif‘Vf‘ment.”

T1k‘ wells r(‘ferrc(l to above w(t<‘ sunk in the districts of
Ahiucdna^ar, Sholapur and Hijajntr wh(‘r(‘ tlu^ water scarcity
was most acute. In these distriets tlie countryside is re-
dundard vvitli wells that have nevtu- yielded a drop of watiT.
It! vie>v of this facdor it is int(Testin^^ to note that ten months
aft(‘r Major Po^^soirs a|)pointment the Hombay ‘‘ (iovtTU-
merd ^•uarard.c<*d th(* suc(*(*ss of tlie water-divifj(‘r to th(‘
cxteid that if water was not struck in any of the sites pointed
out by him a cultivator would be recompensed 50 j)er cent
of his expenses uj) to a sum of Rs. 400 Witliiu the next
t w(dve months only one ha,d to be made and in this particu¬
lar (*ase water actually was tapped but dwindled down to a
small (juaidity when furtluT blasting w,as resorted to. ■

The dillicultics Major Poison had to eontend witli W(Te
cnhancrc'd by th(' fact tliat the

inajority of the bores have be<*n sunk in localities not wliere normal
boring; by ehanei* methods prove siieeessful. but in places where
bores sunk at random have little or no elianee of striking water owin*;
to the fact that in these /.ones the underground supplies are flowing
in defiru'd eurn^nts, and unless the bore is sunk on these currents,
the result is ii failure.”*

• The 7'imes^ Ajiril aoth, 11)20.

•May 1st, 1920.

• Report on the Work of the Water Diviner to the Government of Bombap

for the Year 1927.

• Report the Work of the Water Diviner to the Government of Bombay

for the Period October 1925 to January 1927.

Thk Psyciioi.ocy of thf 0(’c’ri.T

;^4()

Mil jor P()0;s()n's s|H‘ctnc*ular sii(*(‘C‘ss was not diK' to particu¬
lar l(K*al kuowlcd^u*. for previously liis work liad carried him
far alii'ld to other parts of India including* the Nil<^iris,
Hajputana and the North-West Fronti(*r. Xor. it s(‘C!ns,
was h(' tlie only (iovernment dt>wser known, h>r the
(iovcrnnaait report on his work mak(‘s rt‘f(Ti‘ne(‘ to th(‘
jiudhods of an otlicially aj)poinlcd water diviiuT in Australia.

As noted helon*. i?ulivi<luals who lind a dowsiniv-rod
turning inv<ilnntaril\ in their hands immediately believe
themselvi‘s to h(‘ eai>able of divininir water. Nothinjr is
further from the truth. Automatic movtanents of the dows-
ino- rod may (dten t)e achieved with ad(‘(|uate praedise and
even their spontanetnis (u*(*urren(*e seldom means that the
p(‘rsoii concerned is a pot<adial dows( r.

It cannot l)(‘ ('inphasised too strongly that th(‘ majority of
praetisino- dowsers do not ])oss(‘ss any (^\eeptional ^uft of
lindin^ water- except in eireumstaiuas where tlie veriest
bepnner could scarcc^ls' fail. It is sicrnilicant that the cult
of (U)wsin^y, at l(‘ast in WcstcTU Eurf)pe. flourishes at its
brij^htc'st in those* parts of the* country wh(‘rc it is rather more*
likely than not tliat water will be found at random. In su(*h
districts ‘‘ succ(‘ss is virtually assured if the soi-disant
dowser has some idea of the conditions under which water
is usually found locally. Kelativ(‘ly few dowsers will be
found in ar(‘as where wat<T is s(*ar(*e. Dowsin^if flourishes
mainly in districts in which water exists in sheets of watcr-
b(‘aring strata, where almost any bon* which is exeav^ated
b(*low a certain d(*pth will find water; llie wal(‘r from the
saturated strata surroundin;^ the bort* simply j)(‘reolat(*s into
the bore.

Naturally the ‘‘ successes ” of th(‘ dowser under sueli
conditions usually confirms his belief in himself. Further-
inon*, any failures h(‘ may meet are readily accounted for by
any one of a number of stock excuses which satisfy him com¬
pletely. Failures in any event, are soon for^jotten, wdiile his
succ(‘sses are n inembered.

The gr(*at fallacy of dow^sing lies in the (k)ws(*r’s general
tendency to think that almost all und(‘rground water is
confined to running streams. Even in areas well-known to
lie above a saturated and porous substratum, the dowser
will trace th(* course of numerous imaginaiy streams, often

Tiik Modus OrKR\NDi di Ddwsinc ;ui

ibr lon^ dislaiK*(‘s. At a siiitablt* spot, perhaps at the
eoiilhiericc* of two or iiH)r(‘ of his uiuler^^round streams ”,
he will strike liis marker into the* <rronnd. This indicates
the point at which tin* w(*ll is to lie sunk. Wluai tin* well
h(‘^fins to lilK hi* r(‘^ards it as jiroof positive* that In* has traced
the er)iirses of his stn'arns ” correctly.

In such eireumstane<*s the only valid test for tlie (h'lnonslra-
lion of the ^i‘nnine dowsino faculty is for tin* dowser to lind
water in areas wlien* water is known to lx* extremely
scarce. Such leasts arc iinpraetieahlc Ibr it will usually
mean tin* sinking of a doz(‘U or more we lls anel ^au^in^ the
peree*nta^c of sueee‘ss(‘s. The* often tried water-pipe* te'st,
ifi whie*h the* eiowser has to locate ninniufr water in unele'r-
p'ourni pipes, is virtually useless since* it is haseel ein the!
dowser's own mistake*!! Ix lie'fs in re*u‘arel to his eiwn powers.
As will he se‘(‘n late‘r. failure* to pass such water-])ipe te‘sts
deu*s not constitute proof of the deiwscr’s inability to hnel
wateT under natural eeinelitions.

Tin: Moi>rs Ockrandi <>i’ Dowsixe;

VVe* ne)w return to the* e|ue*stie)n e)f he)w Mu* y(*nuine‘ de^wsin^r
expert le)eate‘s the* e*xiste*ne*e* e»f uneler<^Tounel wate‘r. He
walks alon^ holdiuf*; a forked twie; or roei in front ed‘ Unn.
Sudelenly it dips, indicating* (te) him) the* like liheiod (d‘ water
beleiw tJie surface*. As e xplaine*el, this moveme*nt of the* reiel
is due* mere*ly tej a subeonseienisly elire’cteel auteimatie* meive^-
menl of the* de)wse*r's arms eir wrists. How de)t*s In* irain his
information about the* pre*se*ne*(* of imeler^reumd wate’i*.
without which the* dipping (eir risino) of Hie* rexl woulel be*
totally in(*n‘eetive* ? Put brie lly, the* art e)f eleiwsin^ may be
said to consist mainly in the suJ)ee*nse*ions registration and
inte*rpr(‘tati()n of ee‘rtain rele*vant indicia iiinl t heir enu'r^enee
into eonsek)iisness by means of a psyeiieilojj^ieal anteimatism.
The success of the* true* de>wse*r lie*s in his sube*<)nse*ions penvers
of t)l)se*rvatie)n.

It is prohle*inaiieal whether thi*re* is any markeel de'^ive* of
mental dissociation inveilved in the op(*ration of the* ^e*miine
dowsin^.r faculty. This would uiKloul)le*dly be the* (*ase* if
any evidence of hysteria weTe* pre*se‘nt. Hut Hu* absenee of

342

The PsYcnoLor.Y of the Occ ult

hysterical syiiiptoiiis does not preclude th(‘ existence of
dissociation, since, as has bet^n seen in the ease of autonuitic
writing, automatic actions involving marked dissociation
can be aecjuired witli praeticv*. In vi(‘W of the ( vidcFiee ttic
existence of at least some degree of dissociation must be
assumed, for the rc^gistration and int.cTpn tation of various
sensory stimuli appears to be* earri(‘d out subeonseiously
while conscious thouglit*|)roe(‘sses play nuTC'ly a secondary
role. The actual muscular automatism involved in the
dipping acti<»n of the* rod ce rtainly implies some degree of
dissociation.

With some dowsers th(‘ ehiuent of dissociation may be
very (‘onsiderable, analogous to certain hyjmolic states. It
is well-known that in the hypnotic* state CHTtain subjects
experience* a lu'ighteuing e)f the sensory fae*ultie‘s the senses
of sight, liearing. temedi and sm(*ll may bee*e)me abne)rmally
aeaitc. This Jiyperaeuily e)f tJie sense‘s niistakenly called
hy{)e‘raesthesia is not elue te) any inere‘ase‘ in serisitiveiiess
of the sensewy i\e‘rve endings (as in the case e)f true fiyperae^s-
thesia). It results fre)m purely psye*he)le)gieal faedors. and in
hypnosis is elue to an inere‘ase‘ in penvers of e)bseTvalion,
diseriminatieai, attentiveness and e*oneentratie)n with re*gard
to that portiem of the total situatiem e*xhibiteel te) the* sense s
and upon wdiiedi the atteiitie)?) is fe)eusefl a pre>e*e*ss kne>wn as
hyperprosari a .

Ilyperproscxia may be* elc\e le)ped te) a great e xtent by
practise and training. In en’rtain instanens virtually the*
maximum limits e)f human powers e)f e)bservntk)n may be
rcae^hed, anel this may be ae*e*e)mpanieel by a high d(*gre‘e e)f
virtuosity in tlie inte*rpre*tatie)n of minute* mdicia. An ex¬
cellent e*xampl(‘ e)J‘ such a process is j)rovide*d by the extra¬
ordinary skill of tlie* alxiriginal tracke-rs e)f Australia. They
can dcte*e*t and int(*rpre*t minute eue*s whi(*h are lite*rally
invisible te) the untraine*d white* man. with a spe*e‘el anel sure¬
ness that is truly amazing; yet il has b(‘e*n e*stablislu*el that
the actual eye* e)f tlie black tracker is ne> more sensitive e)r
hype raest})etie* than that e)f the average* white mam Indeed
the comparison of the* me‘the)eJs e)f the aboriginal traerker with
those of the dowscT is a ge)od one, with the essential eliflTcrence
that a great part of t he dowser’s observation and interpreta¬
tion of faint sense)ry e ue*s is carried out subconsciously—the

Thk Modus Opkrandi of Dowsing

343

knowledge thus assirnihitc^d biding brought before his eonseious
att(‘iitioii by means of automat ie niuseular niovem(‘nts
magnified by the forkiMl rod.

The dows(T’s siib(*onseious observations and sensory
awareiu'ss of relevant, indicia ean not be totally differentiated
from thos(‘ eonseious processes of observation aiuJ eakrulation
which all su(‘C(*ssful dowsers must employ to at least some
degree. The subconscious mental functions of (‘very one
of us are nornially geared to the ikhmIs and activitic'S of the
eons(*ious juTsonality. Tlicy are linked tx>g(‘ih(*r to f)roduce
the maximum (‘Hieii'iiey. It is the same* with the dowscT in
action, exe(‘pi that his subconscious mental proe(‘ss(*s have
a t(‘nd(‘ney to manif(!st themselves, not by wliat is generally
called “ intuition ” i.e. a spontaneous influx of ideas into
his mind derived from what he has observed subconsciously ;
tiul through the media of intelligible automatic movements.
This transition can be attribut(‘(l largely to the influ(‘nce of
suggestion, the basis of which lies in a combination of belief,
tradition, exptHdxition and exainph*.

Probat)ly some of tlu* more expericaiecd dowsers do not
always redy on suh<H)nsciously registered indications and
subconscious niotor automatism for the detection of water
or metal ores. With increasing att(‘ntion paid consciously
by th(‘ dowser to the to]>ography and gcxilogy of the district,
ttu* rtdiance on subconscious observations must lU'cessarily
coitH* to take a secondary place. One may suspend that the
a(*tions of the forked rod are not always involuntary and that
its dipping or rising action is sometimes maintained for the
sake of mystifying onlookcTs and for the prestige* wliiedi
always accompanies a successful demonstration of the occult.

What are* the surface indicia, denoting thc‘ presence of
water which the true dowser’s undoubted hyper})rosexic
faculty enables him l,o register and assess so accurately ?
Since this side of dowsing has never been properly investi¬
gated, w e* (‘an only deduex* what these indications are : viz.
slight modi(i(*ations in the colour of the soil and vegetation ;
scarcely perc(‘ptiblc cluinge's in the health and the growdh of
grasses, plants, shrubs and f rees, particular attention being
paid to the spread and direction of their rixits ; the type of
V(‘g(‘tation ; texture and dampness of the soil, including the

3U

Thk PsYcnoT.or.Y oy thk Occuit

“ feel ” of the ground underfoot; di{Terene(*s of temperature
in the atmosphere.

It is fairly eiTtain that tlK‘ senses of snu‘ll and hearing play
a part in many instances of sueeessful dowsing. Many
animals are known to be able to sense water from long
distances by means of tlu^ir sense of snu^ll, and then* seems
no r(*ason wdiy human beings who possess a highly developed
olfactory sense should not be able to do tlu‘ saiiie at short
distane(‘S. Tlu* view^ that this sense plays a eonsitlerable
part in the dowser’s detection of underground w^ater which
li(\s near the surface, or whi(‘h has partial ac^cess to the sur¬
rounding air, receives sonu' support from th(‘ fact that dow¬
sing in many country districts, particularly in America, is
know'll as water-smelling Longstanding country tradi¬
tions very often have some basis in fact.

The dow'ser’s task is often renden^d simpltT when the
substratum and sub-soil over which he is op(‘rating is natur¬
ally absorbent. The ground surface* is then likely to be
damp in the neighbourhood of a subterranean str(‘am and the
presence of the w’ater may the more* easily be* dete*cte*el by
such fac'tors as tlie growdh and eharae*te'r of the* v(*ge‘tation,
by the temperature of the* surrounding air and by the charac¬
teristic smell of damp earth.

Many unde*rgrounel stre*ams are* audible* to tlie normal ear,
particularly when the* stream is near the* surfae*e* or d<?scends
through a fault in the rock Mibstratum. To the dowse*r with
a highly developed auditory seiise* the heiaring ” of under¬
ground water wouUl often be a ve*ry efTective method of
detecting its prese*iu!e. It is also possible that some elowsers
(‘an detect the presenee of large underground streams or falls
near the surface by the vibration of the ground underfoot.
In this connection the ability of many of the* deaf-blind to
detect ground vibrations is of eonsidcTabhr interest. With
some dowsers the ability to detect water via tlw* senses of
small and hearing may ])ossibly be liiik(*d with an element of
true hyperaesthesia.

All the various surface indido by wdiieh the dowser senses
the presen(*e of water may be so minute* as to be impractical
as guides to the average person. TIk* ability to detect such
indida is- to use a term fretjuently applied in this instance—
a “ gift It is well known that sensory stimuli have to

TiiK Modus Oi^f.uvkdi of I)o\vsin(;

:U5

attain a (!CTbiin intensity before they can enter the threshold
of conseiousiu'ss. Stinmii of insuflieient intensity cannot
do so, but there is a bordt rland region in which difTuse stimuli
of low intensity may alleet the inclividual subeons(*iously, and
which ar(‘ oft(‘n rcspnnsibh* for intuitions, va^ue premoni¬
tions, “ inspired ” "uesses and the like; the sights, sounds
and sm(‘Ils are not eonseiously registered as such but giee
rise to a vagut* hiding of awartau^ss which cannot b(‘ s[)eeili-
eally traced to any recognis(‘(l (‘aus(‘. It is in this borderland
region that tlie true dowser finds his iiHtier. llis sub¬
conscious impressions ar(‘ eonvenicaitly brought to the light
of consciousness by the unusual psychological d(‘vie(‘ of a
subconsciously operabid muscular n^sponse an automatic
movement of his arms, wrists, hands or lingers whi(*h is
magnified by means of his rod.

Many of the surfac(‘ indicia may b(‘ (piite large (‘nough to
be notie(‘d by any normal person. The best dowsers con¬
sciously utilise' these' indicatie)ris. Hut witli other dowsers a
mechanism of r(‘f)re\ssion may e)j)e‘rate‘ whi(*h gi\ es rise to an
clcanent of mental elisse)eiation. The re|)r('ssie)n facte)r may,
as noted luTore*, re'sult IVom the' inllue*n(‘e of suggestie)n. A
few dowse'i's are liable to markc'd disse)e‘iatie>n and may even
walk areamel in a state' e>f mine)r trane'c ; but the^y are not
ve^ry proficie'iit where' large are'as have* te) lx* surve'yed. The
traru'c state* is alme)st certaiidy elue te) hysterical teneleneies,
anel tliis faete)r alone rcnelers such elowsers unreliable, since
they are e*onstitutionally ine*apable of attaining that degree*
of practical aj)plie*ation without wJiieh the* ele)wsing gift ”
is unce'rtain and only sporaelie*ally suce*e*ssful.

The really ex])crt ele>wser -neex'ssarily one* of le>ng experi¬
ence eloes not rely only on his subconscious powers of
observatie)n. All his knowle*elge', experience and rease>ning
fM)wers are* brought to be*ar on the* j)re)biem in hand. Fe)r
this reason it is a mistake te) believe that the ignoraiit un-
educateel natural ele)wscr is the me>st suce*essful. The
fact is that the me)st e'e)nsiste'ntly sui'cessful de)wse*rs are men
or women of ge)e>el e'elucation, with a gooel eapacity fe>r
reasoned calculation. Many have* a weirking knowledge
of g<‘oIogy ; anel in all ease-s years e)r j)ractie*al eneleavour,
with its inevitable* see.pience* of su(*e*csse's and failure's, con¬
stitute the background of their training.

34() The Psychology of the OcciTi;r

Such Iiigh-cliiss (lowsf'fs are c'xireincly })racti(*al in their
attitude to th(‘ir work except in regard to onc^ thing, naniely
the exj)lanHtion of their faculty. Their explanations vary
between clairvoyance and pseudo-seicnf ific theories of
clcctnutuignctic radiations which are supp<iscd to act on the
body of tlic individual as if it were a mechanical robot!
This latt(T theory is, of course, completely iintcaiablc'. Th(‘
former tlieory is nearer the mark if we substitute “ subcon¬
scious obscTvation ’ for the term clairvoyance. Plainly tlxe
dowser’s fanciful theories must reduce his eflieicncN. Some¬
times, how'cver, the resultant metrical {conventions to which
they giv(‘ rise may undoiibh'dly cconlribute in some nsptcts
to th(c dowser’s accuracy.

Th(‘ building up of a ndiable dowsing t<‘chni(jiic is a long
and dillicult process. After a period of many years' expen-
encf' the {'xpert dowst^r will generally admit hi‘ has plenty to
learn. Tlu* observations of Mrs. Norah Milhai art‘ of con¬
siderable int(‘rest Iier(‘. Mrs. Millen, a dowsiT of many
years’ exp(‘ricnee, earric^d out a (xmsiderable amount of work
as odicial dowscT to the Government of (’eylon during the
last war, between 11)41 and 1945. Like lucarly all <lowsers,
hcT exi)laiiatioiis of her faculty combine nai'vt* inysticiism
with pseudo-seientitle jargon. Her method of w(»rking,
howcever, savours of the? practise born of cxperienc(‘. She
states that she }K)ssess(Hl a w'orkiiig knowl{cdgc‘ of Ceylon, its
topography, weather and water suppliers, gathered over a
period of many y{*ars. Her eejuipment, included compass,
survey maps, surveyor’s bipe and notebooks. She claims
that the rc'ciuiremcnts of a dowser should include* “ an almost
iniciroseopie menuiry for natural detail ”, and ref(‘rs to h(T
owm ability rapidly to assess and differentiate ” her im¬
pressions ; sh(^ emphasizes the ncu^essity of constantly
dev(;loping one’s natural gifts on constructive lines. All this
appears far removed from the outlook of tlu^ rustic dowsc^r of
tradition. wSomc dowsers even state that a wf»rking know'-
ledgi*. of geology is indispensible.

Mrs. Mill(*n states that she works at high spc(*d, finding it
dillicult to work slowly. The action of the rod occurs
involuntarily. Meanwhile she nob^s and interprets its
movements, r(*gistcrs “ visually every detail of the land from
a practical standpoint ”, mentally makes her own assessments

The Modus Operandi of Doavsinc;

and, as tlu* n(‘(‘(l arises, ^ives ‘‘ verbal directions for marking,
iiH^asun Fiu nts and stakings to be done en nnUe She* also
"" dictates notes which are written down for . . . use in

drafting tlie day’s report later”. The forked twig li(‘ld in
her twa) hands will, she adds, n^volve at gnat spi ed when
over large volunu^s of water. ‘

Enough has bi^iai written to show that to dows(‘ with
consist (‘id suec(‘ss years of practice and training are ru cu'ssary.
Few' reach ttiis staniiard although a great many individuals
(*an obtain involurdarv mov(‘ments from their sensitively
e(juilibriat(‘d rods and th(T(‘fore imagine th(‘y are pot(‘idial
dows(Ts. Even then, and with tlu* best of them, consistent
suee(:*ss is not. attainabh'. Tin* p(‘rfcct dows(*r ’’ do(‘s not
exist and in th(‘ v(‘ry nature of things is an imjK)ssibility.

It is not r(‘ally surprising that dowsers an* not cognizant
of (‘itlu‘r the basic natun* of th<‘ir faeulty or tlu* limitations
of th<‘ir art. So far as tlu* present writer is aware, this is
the first time that a eompn‘hensive review of the subjt'ct
from the rational stand|K>int has been essayed, although at
one tinu* or another most of the principles ex[K)undc(l in th(‘se
j)ag(*s have b(*en fragnu^ntarily (‘luinciatcd for lU'arly a
century. Tlu* physicist Sir William Barrett, who sp(*nt- a
great di al of time inv(*stigating water-divining, clearly saw'
that the movements of the divinging rod wen* due to involun¬
tary motor automatism ‘"giving physical and visible expres¬
sion to a mental and abstract cognition ”.

In a in(*morandum on the subj(*ct he explaim*d how' this
cognition might be obtained :

I WHlergroiiiul wal^r and inrUiHie ores an* often iudu-ated Uy
surfa(*(' sijriis, iiiipercM'ptiblc* to tlu* ordinary obs(*rv(*r, but wliieli
lK*(*oni<* known to the* experienced dow'ser. Siicli indications, even
when not (consciously |)crccived, may (create a subconscious inipression
on tlie dowser that will excite the automatic motion (»f his rod."

lInfortimat(*ly, faulty procedure in his own exp(*riiuents
prodiiei^d r(\sults which led him h) a(*c('pt Richet's theory of
“ eryptesth(\sia ” or clairvoyance as the main operative
factor in successful dowsing.

^ .loiirii. U.S.I)., Maivh, l!)44i

* lhiiT(*lt aiK? Hcst(*rmaii, The HmJ, p. I2ti8.

:^4S Thk Psy(’hol(h;y of thf Occulf

Professor J. Jastrow has pithily i‘nuii(‘iaie(l the modm
uperamU of dowsing as involuntary movements found(‘<I on
suheonseiously regist(Ted inclieations Dr. Millais Culpin
also j)ointed out tliat dowsing reaeti(»ns art* a form of psyeho-
lo^ieal aiitonuitisi!! produecd unwittingly hv the museular
aetion of the subject, arid he indieatt‘d his l)eli(‘f that a
number of dowsers are afleeted by a state of dissocial ion.
The successes of dowsing he attributes to “ a super-acuity of
the senses, in th(‘ prcs(aict' of a nuaital dissociation ’ .

But since* a great deal of the attraedion of dowsing lies in
its mvsterv siicli rational explanatimis as the above are ana¬
thema to most of the divining fratemity, and there is
little' eloiibt that many years will pass bef(»re the march of
reason ousts the* present naive- e*one‘eptions whie*h brighteai
the- live s of so mans' !

Tni: pKe)Hra:M of DowsiNe; Tksts

I)e*spite' the- re'asojiably cemsistent sue*e*e‘ss of some de)wser.s
the* gift e)f sue*e*e‘ssful elowsing is ne)t se) wide‘s|)iTa(l as those
wlio practices the art vve)uiel have* us beli(*Ye*. It is an unfor¬
tunate fact that the ma je>rity of wcU-ce>nduete-d experiueental
te'sts have* pre)elue*eel ne'gative* or iiu*e)nelusive results and in
eonse-ejuene’e* the se icntilie* world has turnc'd its back on
dowsing altogether. Part of the* re*ase)n feir this is tliat the
geologists, physicists and hydroleigists who have eofiduete'd
theses tests are* ne)t epialitu'd for this type of iiwt'stigatiou.

The indivielual be'st qualifu'd te) test the powers of tlu'
(lowseT is the* psyehe)logist, for the mystery ” e)f dowsing
lie*s mainly in the sph(*re* e)f psyehole)gieal automatism,
se*nse)ry j)ere*e*j)tie)n, ariel, to a certain extent, subeonseious
ratie)edfiatie)ii. \Vhe*n elowse*rs e*e)ntinually make* rederenee to
mysterious psychic j)owers or the aetion of e*le(dre»niagnetic
fields and radiations, it is obvious ne)nsense. Ne ve'rtheless
their tendeney to think along those line's has luid the* result
that almost invariably the wre)ng kinel e)f (*xpeTimental tests
liave* b(‘en a{)pli('el. The elowser’s insistener that his faeadty
is due to se)me‘tliing hitherto unkne>wn to the* worlel e)f seieiice
has led to liis being teste*d fe)r pe)we*rs whie*h it is ejuite e'crtaifi

'* I^ature, ve>l. 119, p. 78a, 1927.

Thi: Pr()bij:m of Dowsinc; Tksts

hr dors not possess. This undoubtedly accounts for a good
many of ilu‘ test failun^s. Again, through ignorance of what
is involv(‘d the dowser lias often succeeded in otlier types of
experimental test, for the simple reason tlial tlu^ (‘xp(Ti-
rnenters have rcniain(*d unaware of th(‘jirecautions necessary
to render the tests \'alid.

An example of tlie kind of test which tin* dowser fails to
pass is that in which he is asked to lind tlu' position and
<Urection of a numluT of water jiipes biiri(‘(l underground.
Unless he has a liyjieraeslhetie sense of hearing and (‘an hear
the wat(‘r running, h(‘ will not succe ed in locating the pipes,
for th(‘ usual slight surfa<‘e ifidic^ations upon which he r(‘lies
will be lacking. Land drainage pijies whose segnu^nts are
not joined together w(Mild f>fr(‘r a better proposition to the
dowscT ; similarly iron water pipes in the op(‘n country where
the ground is more or less undisturbe d might also offer him a
ehanc(% if not buried too far nmh'rgrouud, through the etYects
of the metal on the vi‘getation or soil dir(‘etly abov(‘ it.

Pipes under road surfaces or concrete are us(‘l(‘ss for test
purposes. If tlie pip(‘s hav(‘ been laid down after th(‘ con¬
crete or asplialt, the signs will be then' for all to see ; if the
reverse*, the dowser will inevitably fail if the tests are properly
(ondueted.

An excellent scTics of dowsing (*xperiments with water
pipes were carried out by Professor (L Wertheimer in H)()6. ‘
His conclusion was that the ‘‘experiments do not answer
dtdinitely the tpiestiou whether or not dowsers have the
power to find water His subji'cts w^ere all well-known
dowsers. One of his experiments involved turning the water
ofl‘ and on at the main at times unknown to the dowser. The
dowsers were supposed to be able to “ divine w^hen the
water was (lowing through the pipe and when it was still.
Naturally such a test as this, although believed by the dowsers
themselves to he completely in their powers, bears little relation
to the facts of dowsing. Only by auditory hyperaesthesia
could the dowser gain the requisite sensory cues, while the
evidence |K)ints to the fact that he relies mainly on his sense of
vision to gain the information he requires.

' Experiments xoith “ Waierfinders,''' Water (supplciTK'iit), Nov. 1.5th.,
1900.

350

The Psychoi^ogy of the Occui/r

AnothtT water-pipe test was organised by a special eoni-
niittet* of scientists and sjK^cialists who investipatc'd tlie sub¬
ject of dowsing at the instigation of ihv \o\iTmi\ The Sanitary
Record mtd Municipal Engineering. * 1’his coinniittc^* came
to much the same coiuJusions as Professor Wertheiiner, i.e.
tliat the (experiments were inconclusive. Tlu* committee
stated in its report that such evidenc(‘ as was forthcoming
for the ability to find water was not suHieiently definite
and trustworthy to l)c of much practical value While
this \(*r(lict is fair enough in regard to the abilities of tlu^
majority of dowsers, it does not do justice to the expert
dowser whose value luis been proved often (‘iiough in all parts
of the world.

Th(‘ eonelusion eaiinot be avoidi^d tlisit dowsing tests are
impractical undcTtakings. The only genuine and convincing
tests would b(* to put a dowser in a district where wat,(T is
extremely scar(*e and tell him to find water. As Major
Pogson has shown, this is the type! of situation where the
exp<Tt dowser Juis aln^ady beciii able to prove his worth.

Another asptH'l of dowsing tests is that, the dowser may
obtain his cu(\s from uiuonscious movements of bystanders
or the testers themselves. If those in charge of th(! (experi¬
ments know th(‘ spot under which water lies, it would not
require a dowser to find it; any vaud(!ville “ rnusehvreader ”
would be able to do the same.

There is one type of “ expcTirnent ” [K>pular among dowsers
themselves. A number of cups arc laid on the floor, one of
which is filled with water. Saucers arc laid over each cup
and one of the company attempts to divine ” which of the
cups contains the water. Another variation is for a coin to
be placed under one of a number of saucers or under a carpet.
Since at least one, if not all of the company present, usually
knows which saucer conceals the water or coin, or the position
of the (!oin under thi! carpet, the dowser can often locate
them, being guided by tlur unconscious r(‘actions of those
watching.

The same principle is used by the vaudeville telepathist
who finds articles hidden upon the persons of thos(! in the
audience. It is dowsing “ successes ” siu^h as these which

* Tht Water Divining Denumstratitm^ ibid., April llth., 191 a, pp. 895-
868; May 2nd. ,pp. 462-466.

The l^KoHi.EM OF Dowsinc Tests

ibst(T nud ])fT}H‘tuiite naive b(‘li(‘fs in oeeult and “ eK ctro-
magnetic* ’ theori(is of dowsiiij^ those coiurerned being
nnabl<‘ to aeeount for their siieeess in any otluT way.

It is plainly a prime requisite* of all dowsing experiments
that no one prese nt shall be aware* of the location of the
wat(*r or object to be divined The* sauerer test is in any
ev(*nt quite useless -although it is re*mote*ly possible* tliat by
talking or singing ttie dowser ooulei distinguisli diflerenees
in tone preivkled by the* re flect ie)n eif the sound waves from
th(‘ saueers or cups in mueh the same way as some* e»f tlie
blind locate tfie j)e)sition of obje*els in tlie* roe)m. In the
absene'c eif ^/// se*nsory eu(\s tlie elivine r is epiite* lost.

Tests ele‘vise‘el to e'X(*lude all s(‘nse>ry e*ues are* a waste of
time. It folleiws frenn this that there* must be numerous
eases unde*r held conditions wliere* the dowser is hel})le‘ss, as
(for example) where* a stratum e>f imperine'able* rock interv(*nes
hetwe*e‘n the surface of the greiund anel the unelerlying water,
lender e*(*rtain conditions, e>f course, eveai this etihicully might
be overcome, particularly if the dowsc*r peissessi s a ee)nsi(ler-
jible knowledge e>f geedogy. The inoeleru geologist is quite
capable of ‘"divining” water on lus own aeeount. if by “divin¬
ing ” one can m(*an using methods of observation and deduc¬
tion without the us(* of instruments. The traiiu‘d expert
ge<)logist of long experience could ce rtainly compe te with all
but the most practised and experienc(*d of dows(*rs in most
kinds of terrain- -though not in all sol(‘ly hy the use of
observation and seieiititic methods of d(‘duction. With a
great many types of geological formation the expert geologist
can easily find water without employing instrumcids or
apparatus wh(*re the bt^st dowse r would be reduced to mere
guesswork. On tlie other hand, it is e<|ually true that the
high-class dowser, through his (*xeeptional powers of observing
minute indicia^ is pi*rf(*ctty (‘apable of b(*ati!ig tlu* geologist
at his own game when* the geological formations are un¬
favourable to the latter. And this is jirobably the easi* when
it oeeurs that tlie dowser succeeds after the geologist has
already tried and failed. A great deal, naturally, depends
on the experience and skill of the geologist.

Where the g(*ologist gains all round, however, is in the
deducing of the existence of w^ater at depths totally beyond
the powers of the dow^ser. Using scicntiiie techniques of

;352

TiIK PsYrilOLOCY OF TIIK Ot’C UJ.T

observation based on sound leehiiieal knowledge, geologists
have been known to make remarkably aeeiirate estimates at
depths of the order ol‘ a thousand ieet. This is e(Ttainly
beyond the ability of any dowser wdio is an untrained g(‘olo-
gist.

There is no doubt at all that many of the dow'ser’s sueeesses
ean be attributed to local geological knowledge picked uj) at
tuizard through observation during the course of his work in
his owui locality or neighbouring districts. A dowser who
has inad(‘ hundreds of trials at locating undtTground watcT
may gain a eonsidcTable working knowledge* of loe*al roe*k
fe>rmalions, types of soil anel substrata and their relation to
the finding e)f water. Ilis suc(a‘sses and lailures. e()mbin(‘d
with a goe)d meanory, wa>uld enable him to arrive at a fair
geeilogieal knowdcelge of the' terrain are)und his own locality.
This factor should not be ignore'el wlie‘n the* dowser is undeT
test.

Rod Reactions and Mkthk ai. Conventions

The ele)w^seT (*an (|uite eiftcn estimate the* ele^pth of an
underground s})ring e)r pool with reasonable aee‘urae*y,
particularly if the water lies within a e*oni])araliv(‘ly sliort
distance from the surfaces. Smdi e'slimations are never
consistently successful anel be*e*ome‘ even less so if tlie elej)th
exceeds the neighbourhooel e)f tliirty or forty feet. Ye't
reasonably a(*eurate e*stimations of de'pth have been made up
to the hundre'd foot mark, though in such ease s it is not
possible to say heiw far an element e)f luck enters into the
iiiatteT or te) what ele gre'C the dow'se*r is utilising his knowkrdge*
of geology.

In estimating de*pth the de)wseT will e'ither make a con¬
sciously e*ale‘ulat(Ml e stimate based on past e‘xperience, or else
he may make use of a j)erse)nal code or me*trie*al ce)nvention
based on the strength, spend and number e)f re^ve^lutions
inve)lvcd in the motions of the rod. So mucli nemsense has
been wTitten aliout these* personal metrical ce)d(is that it is
hard to estimate their value. The rod turns by the^ involun¬
tary motor automatism of the dowser’s arms and wrists. If
he can subconsciously assess the depth of a subterranean
stream with reasonable aenuracy, there is no reason why a

Hoi) Rkaotioxs and Mktkical Coxvkxttons .S58

system of mental indexing should not ))e used to exte rnalise
this assessment l)y nu'ans of th(‘ rod’s motion. If, for
example, the rod turns in the dowser’s hand thn-e and a half
times and, aeeordin^r to Ids (Mxle, a full turn t ifuals Ivu feel,
the'ii it is e vident that he 1ms sul)ef)nseiemsly assessexl the
de*pth of tli(' stream to he* abeait. Ihirty-liv(* feet. Similar
eonve'iitions are us(‘d (dr exterjialisin;v snheonseie>ns im-
j)ressions rr the volume of water and also elin (*tie)n of flow.

In me.)st e*onntri(‘S tin* e*onventionaI motion oi' ilie* rod is
forwarels and de)wn. hut in a fe-w il is uf) and ha(*k. Some
de)WseTS. however, employ hoiJi these motions as a means of
exteriialisin^r tlieir snheeuiseions imj)ressions (*one‘e*rnin;4; tlie
elireetion of ilow. A^aiii. the* strength or sjxvd of tlie nxl’s
movement is <d‘t<Mi taken to he an indiealion ol‘ tin* \(»)iime of
wateT wliiedi the dows(‘r has l(x*ate‘el. \'<*t a^ain. the <lowser
may make sliift to ^iv(' th(‘ rate of (low in gallons per minute
hy usiii)^ the same* e*on\entional e*od(‘s.

Tlie* ve^rdiet on tlie use* of llase* persenal nK‘tri(‘al devie*cs
must })e tliat only the expert de>wse‘r of many > e*ars’ standing
ee)nlel ))ossibly use* tlie ni to any de*<:^ree e)f reliability, anel tlien
he* must be able* to asse ss wh<‘ther or not I lie information
wliie-h liis rexl imj)arts is to be* lruste*d. Tlie re* is notliincf
una(*ee*jdable* in the idea tliat the* suheonseious mind can
(‘ejiiform to a memurise*(l s\ st(*m e)f m(‘1rieal conventions with
consid(‘rahlt* aeeurae*y ; nor is tlie re* anytl)inn- particularly
strange in its ability to use these mental scales of refe*re*iu‘e‘ as
channels of (*xternalisation. No one ne‘(*(l be* sur})ris(*d at
such faiadties of the subeemseious mind fe»r v\e* are alreaely
aceiuaintexl with sue*h phenome*na as hyjie rmiH sia anel tlie
accurate estimation eif time*-intervals ; the sul)e*ousei(>us
“ lightning ealenlation ” of elilheult matliematie proble‘ms by
some child prodigie'salso lu‘lj)sto plae*e the problem iu eeuTce’t
p(Tspe‘ctive.

Some dowsers use a peutluliim instead of a rexl. The
pendulum is a far more S(*nsitive instrume nt tlian tlu! feirkexl
divining-reid, but it has tlie disadvantage- that il (*an only
be useel while the eleiwser is standing still. The* jieiidnlum
will register tlie tinie'si involuntary movements of the
hand, and as is w<*ll-kne>wii, any simple iel<*a in the mind
can be redle'eted te) seime (*xte*ut in the* me)\'e*me*nts of the
pendulum. Ideomotor movements sheiulel, jireiperly sp(*ak-

3.V1. Tm: Psvi I!ol<h;v or thk Oci i i'i

///^^ hr fnuti tlu* fnit' fimtur ,

they ;iri', so spnik, in* jtnr-autoiiiat isins in rinhrvo \, * ‘

iVit’a-ss. wub'h th*' san\t* typo-s ol‘ nntnral rMii\, /

lj>nl In /)r/aiij/j;/]iali»usrrs as u///., /‘oj ,/oiiy.J''
liinOllS inO\ i‘Uh1l(s {if thr pclif/ulufu ti> .ifid Irn,
circuhir vllipt(^j(L chii'k\yh(‘ •^hd uk

orVhe .Jcscrilx'd all way hv attrilmtr<! a s/.,-,),,.

jutwittini*’, h\' :j j)ro(U\^s oi hit! the

cluiiint'ls wJun hy the sii/wonscunisly uaiuin'd ifnprrs'^ions
arc objertifiid. The cansrious mind o/‘ tJic dowser rmi
tlion iTitt‘rj)ret Avithnut dilliculty tlu‘ nM)V<‘nieiits of tlu^
peiululuni, or tlu' rod, liold in fronl o|‘ him.

To acquire a s(Ti<‘s of conventions wlicn hv th(‘

reactions of rod or |)(*ndulum (!omc to hav(‘ a speeilie meaning
may he a matter of training, invention or even eliaiUH*. or it
may be sinq)l\ ])ieked up tlirough eojning tin* jarsonal
metrical eod(‘s of other dowscTs. It is a. great drawback
tliiit all c'lasses of dowser those who nuTcly delu(h‘ them-
selv(‘s that they possess the gift, thost^ who are charlatans or
merely ineompcdeiit, vvcti most of th(‘ exjKTts all write of
their dowsing (‘xperienees as if th(‘ r(‘aetions of th(*ir rods and
their metrical conventions were infallibh*. Nothing eotdd
he further from the truth ; tlw' ideal robot dowser do(‘s not
exist and tlie pretence of infallibility rendcTs all such claims
suspect.

The metliod of externalising subeonseious impressions via
an automatic code of conventional reactions is (juite obviously
an exeellent one provided it xvorks. To b(‘ al)le to give an
indication of not only the location of the subterranean water
but also its depth, volume, direction and rate of How is most
desira})l(‘. But to estimate thes(* furtlua* factors is far liarder
than merely to locate the vertical jiosition of water. Without
the necessary clues upon which to base such an estimate -
a good knowledge of geology would helj) (‘norinously- no
system of mental indexing or tcK'hnique of externalisation
will make up the lack. A f(*w" really good dowsers use systcan-
atised codes of rod-rcaetions regularly and to undoubted
advantage ; but the ma jority of dowscTs tend to think of all
underground water in tcTins of stremns, which makes one
sceptical of the value of most such reaction-codes.

Radiksthesia

355

Radiesthesia

The eliunis of many of the dowsing fraternity brook no
limits. With rod or ])endulum they are able, as a perusal of
tlieir journals and literature will show, to forecast the future,
dowse for water or niinerals from plans and maps, sex eggs,
diagnose and eun* (lis(‘as(‘, detect thieves or missing persons,
diseovi r forces, fields, rays and beams galore, and (‘xplore
the Jiiost intimate pro(*esses of the molecule and the atom
with a, d(‘gre(‘ of accuracy which must for long remain the
envy of modern pliysical sci(‘nc(‘. \o literature in llie world
is so fantastic as th(‘ litt ratun* of dowsing, and all the books
and articles have an air of (‘arncstiu'ss and veracity wliieh,
were it not for the naive bkaiding of sympathet ic magic with
modern scientific ideas and terminology, would assuredly
eom})(‘l b(dief.

This jumbl(‘ of sf*ienee, dowsing, and the occult constitutes
the modern cult of ““ l{adi(‘sthcsia In this particular
str(*tch of tlie country of th(‘ blind the rod and pendulum are
kings. Th(‘ir (li})pings, risings, swayings, wagglings and
oscillations are infallible indications of sonu^ kind of force
reacting uj)on the sensitive dowser. Stnenee is regularly
eonfut(‘d ; y(*t at the same time all dowsers look to seieiiee
for confirmation of their tlieories. To all those for whom the
o(*cult holds an irn'sistibh' appeal Ra(li(‘sthcsia is to he re-
eomnuMided ; for here is magic with a difference, combining
in w'ondrous fashion the psychic with the energy of the atom.

The bulk of so-calk'd dow'S(?rs, /.e. that vast crowd of in¬
dividuals who delude themselves that automatic movements
wdth rod or pendulum proves their ability as diviners, can
make no practical use of a genuine reaction-code of nudrical
conventions. Even those experts wdio use such a, device to
good (‘ff(‘et go astray when they attribute to their personal
code of reactions an exh'rnal objectivity. For the modern
(ailt of radiesthesia has given a sj)urious scientific aura to the
theories and beliefs of dowsers. They see in the systematised
reactions of the rod or jiendulum evidence of external emana¬
tions, radiations, rays, fields and forces of attraction and
repulsion. To “ explain ” tliese various “ forces ” they have
resorted largely to concepts derived from tlie physics of
clectro-magnetism. Other dowsing enthusiasts prefer ‘‘ psy-

35(5

Tiik 1\svciiolo(;y of thk Occri.r

chic ” explanations, even searching for elnes artiong ancient
Yoga literalure. The ri'snlts in botli cas(‘s are about the
same.

The tluorising of dowsers lias don(‘ nmeli to discredit
dowsing generally. As Th. ]h\sternian lias obsiTved, practi¬
cal success do(‘s not always carry witJi it the ability to exj)lain
itself. “ However.” he adds. “ no speculation is altogidher
wasted in a WvU wher(‘ ignorance is practically coinpl<‘te."
And this caustic remark is very niu(*h to the })()int; dowsers,
with viTv few ('xceptions. show a nai'vetN’ in ri'gard to th(‘
fundamentals of their subject which would be inexcusable in
any other type of practical undertaking.

The tua^mim opus of dowsing theory is undoubtedly Maby
and J^ranklin's Physics of the Diriuiug RotL Tliis large
volume was review'cd in th(‘ aiithorilalivi* s(*ientilie weekly.
Nature. Thc^ reviewer concluded his thoroughly jiistitialik*
criticism of the book thus : “ Tlu' theoretii‘al section, liy the
second author, postulates some form of cosmic radiation
r(!sulting in ek'elro-magnetic w'av(\s of ten nndns wav(‘-
length. There seems to be no direct c vidcaicc for siudi w^av<‘S,
and the author's discussion of their polarization (‘annot be
justified on our present physi<*al knowledge.

“ In presenliag facts and ttieorics to the scientific worhl, there is
a well-accepted and necessary pruirt^durc. It is to h(* regretted that
I lie authors have not followed fliis proceiliirf*. thus niakitig llic
position of the scicntiti<? reviewer impossihle." •

N(‘cdl(\ss to say, in the years wdiieh havt* elapsed since the
publication of this treatise ”, no further advance's have
been fortlu!oming tei shake the sei(*ntifie wxirlel. The only
ee)mm(*nt we nex-d make ein the* scientilic claims put feirwarel
by radiesthetists (as dow sers now’ e*all thcmselve*s) is that their
“ (inelings ” invariably lack the suppeirt of the e'stahlished
seienee^s and if true woulel upset the whole structure of nuKle'rn
physics. There seems little^ likelihood of that eventuality.
The best grounds of criticism against the radiesthetie^ Iheorie's
arc the extreme naivety of their basic assumptions which
possess no internal consistency, lack anything approaching
a logical foundation, and are generally flatly contradictory

» Journ. S.P.R., 1938, p. 150.

• Nature, ID K), p. 150.

Radikstiiesia

357

to ea<;h other; each radiesthetist possesses his own iiiter-
pretati()n of them and every dowser produces different
results trying to apply them. Radiesthesia is in fact no
more scientific than Mesmer’s “ explanation ” of the pheno-
m(*non of hypnotism.

The <‘leetro-magnetie or “ radiesthetic ” theory of dowsing
is merely a modernised version of the long-since-discredited
theories of MesnuT, Riechenbaeh, Blondlot and Grimes.
Tlu‘ historical antecedents of radiesthesia are animal-
magmdism, od-rays, N-rays, electro-biology, and the '' aes-
thesiogejiie agents” of Gliareot and liernheim who used
magnets and metals of various kinds to cure hysterical
l)a1 ienls. All these fallacious (‘oneepts hav(‘ long been known
to i>e (lu<‘ to psyehoiogieal suggestion in oiic ioiMu or anoUatr.
Wht'U, in Grimes came over from America to t‘xliibit

th(‘ [>he?iom<*non of electro-biology it was sf>on realised that
it was ju>thing more than hypnotism despite tin* fan<‘ifiil
though siue(‘re theorising.

Kleetro-biology, like the th<‘ory of auimal-magiu^tism
wliiefi ])ree(*(l(‘d it, well demonstrates the (extraordinary
faeilily with which suggesti(»n and autosuggestion may
inlluene(‘ (xperimental results, making them app(‘ar to
accord fully with the theory held by the experimenter. The
elVeels on Imman l)iangs claimed by ('hareol and IhTidu im to
be due to nu’tals a?id magnets were in fact due to suggestion
alone. This was (*asily shown by the observation that atn/
kind of object or suhstanee achieved pn^eisely the sanie
elfe(*ts, provid('d tin* patient had first becai led to b('li('V<‘
that th(‘ object in (|U(‘stion was in fact a magmd. That
magiKds and metals were efReaeious in curing or relieving
the symptoms of hyst(*rieal patients is but anotluT in-
stan(‘e of the power of suggestion. The main rocpiisite
for such cures is tliat the patient should believe in the
e!li(!aev of the method employed.

The eomplicatcMt patt:(*rn of reactions obtain(‘d by some
proponents of thc^ cult of radi<*sthesia are undoubtedly due
to the dowser’s particular s(‘t of preconceptions concerning
the way in which h(* imagines his “ radiations ” to operate.
His mind has aee<*pted th(‘ suggi‘stion of eh'etro-magnetic
waves, fields and rays together with a number of ideas
which he has culled or conceived concerning reaction-

358

The Psycholocy of the Occvlt

bands ”, polarization, ‘’'phase reversals aild the rest.
Sometimes it may occur that the theorising has taken
place subconsciously, and his rod will then demonstrate
a new scries of reactions ; the dowser will then claim to have
discovered new “ phenomena ’’ or “ laws ” of radiesthesia.
Or if his motor automatism spontaneously produces a new
type of reaction he will try to formulate a new radicsthetic
tlieory of radiations and fields of force ” to account for
it.

In The Physics of the Dhining Rod wo witness the fan¬
tastic results of such theorising. This lengthy treatise ”
represents an amazing mixture of dowsing, cosmic rays
and other types of eleetro-magnctic radiation, sub-atomic
physics, biophysics, geophysi(‘S, meteorology and gcok)gy.
Uy the end of the book one is left still wondering wh(dher
the aiitlior’s freely distributed scientific claims have much
substane(*. From tlu? seientilie standpoint The Physics of
the Divining Rod cannot be said to possess the slightest
validity.

The question of phase-reversals ” is of some inie rest -
if it is not, in fact, merely due to the efleet of autosuggt'stion.
It may w^ell find a parallel with the phenomenon of mirror-
writing or Spiegelschrift, which often occurs in cas(‘s wIktc
mental dissociation is manifested.

There are several different “ schools ” of radiesthesia
on the C'ontinent and the followrcTs of tach adhen? to their
own particular brand of theory and practice. Despite
this the individual dowser seldom, if ever, appears able
to obtain the same pattern of measurein(‘nt and figures
as that of his neighbour. Nor is this to be expected once
the facts of dowsing are properly understood. It is f)nly
expected by the radiesthetists themselves who believe
that the dowser is largely a mechanical robot op(!rafed by

radiations ” emitted by water or metal ores.

WluTc a number of dowsers are trained by the same
maste r under the same conditions, nearly identical reactions
of tlie rod may be obtained—or so it is claimed. And if
a number of such dowscTs, who accept the same* radiation
theory, together with its complementary reaction-code,
arrive at approximately the same? metrical results, it would
certainly confer a deceptive objectivity on the hyj)othe(‘at(‘d

Kadikstuksia

359

TaiUvvti(»\\s for those* Nvho arc ignorant of tVu* real explan¬
ation of the facts.

All this l(‘a(ls us to ask whetlw‘r liar flood of literature
on radi(*stli(*lie theories has any practical bearing on dowsing
practice. With very few exceptions, those wlio have
evolved a eoinplieated tlieory of radiations to account for
their rod r(‘aeti<»ns make highly exaggeral(‘d claims for
th(*ir (*w'n suecc^sscs ; for them tin* motion of their rod Ix*-
eomes an infallible indicator of rays or ti(‘lds of one kind
or another. And wc‘ may sxispeet that thos(‘ wlx) write;
with such uncritical (Han of llieir own claims arc* not dows(Ts
at all but have nurcly achievt^d a fa(*ulty of sporadic m<.)tor-
automatism. Sorm* of their “ maps of und(*rground
streams would, if accurate, confute most of lh(' lessons
of getdogy accpiired over the past hundred years. With
a few dowsiTs, liow(‘\cr, it is <juit(‘ ])robable that tlu‘ adop¬
tion of a radiation hypothesis has been a main fa(‘tor in
tli(‘ (l(‘Vclopm(‘nt of an a(‘curate teclini(|ue c>t‘ (.*xt(‘rnal-
isation.

A radiation theory, to b(‘ of any practical use, must
poss(‘ss a complementary set of convcait ional r('a(*tions of tlu;
rod. The radiation-inspirtMl code* of reactions may,
<|uite obviously, be as good a cliannel of e\t(‘rnalisation
as any other. Yet on the whole tin* impr(‘ssion is gained
that claims of dowsing successes by ardent radu'sthetists
are generally exaggerated and that in tin* great majority
of cast‘s are totally without foundation.

Several independ(‘nt experiments havt* b(‘(‘n carried out
to test the validity of the dowser’s th(*ori(‘s concerning
electro-magnetism as the (»perative factor. Many dow¬
sers hav(‘ asserted that if they are completely insulated
from the ground all rod-reactions cease fortliwith. even if
tlu* dowser knows liimself to be standing ov(*r water. These
tests have prov(‘d conclusively the autosuggesti\e origin
of such id('as ; for it has been established that if the dow¬
ser is deceived into believing he is insulated wh(*n in fact
he is not, his rod will still fail to move. Again, it lias bee n
found that insulation does not interfere* with the rod’s
inovem(*nts as long as the dowser is k(‘j)t in ignorance of
the fact of his insulation. The dow'ser’s beliefs, not the

360

The Psychology of the Occult

fa(*t of insulation, dictate' the rnovcnicnts t>f the rod during
such tests.

Little need be said concerning the higluT flights of fancy
in dowsing theory. In this facTic' realm the* pendulum holds
sway both literally and figuratively. We find that diseases,
drugs, microbes, blood, metals, plants, colours and objects
of all kinds have' a sjiecifie “ ceilenir Their raeliatiems
can he measured in ekgre'cs (liovis) on the' ‘‘ IJiome*ter ”,
which in turn can also inelicate the wave'lcnglhs of sputum,
fingernails, hair, signatures, phedographs anel paintings.
The' elegrees (Bovis) are measured by heileling the' pe'iielulum
abe)ve‘ a measuring tape ; the* le'ngth of the* swing de'notes
the number of elegree'S (Beivis). An inelivieliiars ‘‘aura”
alse) has a jiartieTilar wave'lengih anel ceilour which altcT
aceording te> the jKTson’s slate of health.

If wavelengths alone' elo not provieh* the nee'essary in-
iormatie)n, e*lairve)yane*e‘ is not to be' efe'spise'el. llnaieh'd
thought can se'le'cl ele'e‘tre>>magnctic fre'Cjiu'ne'ie'S anel re'jcct
otlu'rs at will. If this eleu's not wx)rk, the Ceismic Minel,
Yoga or telepathy may be' e)f se)me assistaiu'c. If your
“serial nuinbtTs ” appear hay-wire, then try ane>ther
“ test-sul)stane‘e ”. If you wish te) unele*rstanel ye>ur wife’s
necels l)c1te*r, you C'an find e)iit her psychologie*al ieliosyn-
crae'ies by holeling a })e'nduluin over he*r e'ranium. In
the Journal of the British Se)cicty of I)e)wse‘rs' eiiu' “ me'dical
radiesthetist was lexl te> ask : “ Dex's he* (tlie^ deiwscr)
elctect j)sye*hical, che*mi('al, ek'C'tronic, e-therie*, mental
and/or s])irilual radiat ions, or their e'epjivalcnt ?” Alas,
no euK' kne)W's.

The ve)gue in “ map-dowsing ” de'seTve s mention. Un-
fortimate'ly map-dowsing Unfits never su('e*e*e'd. In 1933
tests of de)wsing from plans were earrie'd e)ut at Avignon
under the auspie^e's of the re)ngr('s de Sourcie'rs te) decide;
once' and for all if tfiere was anything in tlu'se claims. They
produe'cel entirely negative' re.'sults. In 1947, Frangois
Granu'nia e)f AnrcM'v, France, was rc'porte'el to have been
awardee! the sum of fifty thousand francs for le>cating by
map-dowsing the bexly of a young man whei had fallen
to his death in the Alps. He liael useef a penelulum and

* Radio- PercqjHon, Sept., 1947 p. 210.

Radiesthksia

861

a large scale map of the area. Since the area in which the
young Frenchman was climbing must have been kiiowii
and could not have bt^cn very (xtensive, a success such
as this may be justifiably attribut(‘d to chance if not due
to prior knowledge. Against tliousands of map-dowsing
failur(‘S, wc must expect an occasional (fharice sijcc(*ss. It
will be surprising if the dows('r of Anrecy is fortunate ciiougli
to hit the jackpot again.

Some dowsers us(‘ “ sanipl(‘s ” to aid th(‘in in their ojht-
ations. A “ samph^ ” is gt'nerally a pie(*(‘ of iron, (*(>j)per,
gold or other meUil held in ilu' liand of tlie dowse r, or,
in th(* case of a pendulinn-uscT, often suspeiuh'd on the
eiul (»f a pi(‘ce of string: it is us(‘(i whih* prosp(K*ling for
the n*sp(‘etive ore of th(‘se metals, or h)r tracing under-
gnnmd inrtal pipe's. WJien dowsing for oil or wat(T. a
vial of oil or pure wat(T may h(‘ us(‘(l. Sf)me dows(‘rs say
that tli(*y (*annot dowse without IIk'sc aids and lliis may
(|uite often hv triK*. The; dowser's belie fs may l)e sudieiently
stroi^g to inhihil his automatism if he dowsc's without
such samj)les With im[)ressionahje or suggt'stil)l(‘
dowsers th<‘ us<- of a samj)h‘ of tlu‘ (‘lenient to be (li\'in(*(l
is undoiibledly a good jisyehologieal aid. From tiu' an-
thro))ologieal standpoint tin* use* of samjiles is, of eours(\
men ly aiiotlu'r instance of sympath(‘tie magic. We ea-n
see I he sann* prineijih* in what psyehieal r(‘S(*ar(*hers call
“ ])syehometrv

I’erhajis om* of llie most wid(*s{)read be liefs of today is
that j)(*ndulum use rs are able to elete ed the* se x of uuhale lie el
(‘ggs. The peuelulum is held above the egg and ieleo-motor
movements eause it to swing to and fro, indi(*aling male*,
or lat<*ra.lly, indi(*ating female. No movement of (lie*
pendulum indicates that the e*gg is mife'rtiliseel.

There is ne» known method of detecting tlie sex of a ehiek
until after it has hatehe'd. Still less likely is the* possihility
of detecting the st*x of a frcshly-biid egg which many a
pendulum-iiscr claims he can do. Prophe*e*y or e'lairvov-
ance would be the* only <*xplanation of sucli fe'ats and the
many sutwsses claimed ean only be* due* to delusion or
fraud. On the radicsthetic hypothe*sis, of course, tlie* male*
egg emits radiations eif a dificTcnt “ waveleaigthto that
of a female egg whie*h the human robot re'ceiver picks uj>

362

Ttik Psyc’iiolocjy of thf Occn/r

and registers on his pendulum. Competent tests of th(‘
<iowser’s ability to sex eggs hav(‘ produced negative results.
As Avith niap‘dowsing, however, individuals still eontiniie
to claim complete a?id consistent success. The paralhl
is instructive.

“ Mkdk AL ” Radtkstiiesta

In medical ” radi(‘sthesia dowsirig methods ar(‘ adapted
to the diagnosis and <‘A'cu to th(‘ cure of disease. Then*
ar(‘ some members of the m(‘dieal j)rof('ssioii avIio claifu
to use such methods lo supplement normal cliiii(*al methods,
with considerable success if om* can judge from th(‘ir })ul)-
lish(;d arliclcs. Their claims, however, are sonuvvliat
suspect siiic(‘ they rar(‘ly, if ever, admit to a I’ailuri' but
WTitc as if the j)(‘ndulum were an infallible detector <»f
diseases and their remedies. Most of th(‘se writers are ob¬
viously deluded, as ]M {‘snicr was delud(‘d. Hut sin(*e the
kind of peo])le who fr(‘(|U('nt the waiting rooms of lhes(t
medical radiesthetists an* gcaicrally of a cr(‘dulons and
imj)n‘ssionable type, it may be assumed that the factor
of suggestion inay sometimes operate in bringing at)out
cures or improveiiKMits in a good many eases, particularly
wdien th(’ patients ’ maladies are psyclu^genie origin.

Most of the medical radi(‘stlu‘tists’ claims, howevtT,
constitute the most arrant nonse?is(*. They an* partic¬
ularly keen on the* supposed relation of colour to diseast*.
In a voluuH* (‘utitled La Radicsihesic written by a wt ll-known
dowser, oiu* is informed that a ce rtain state of dark green
is “ in n'sominee* w ith ” b. koeh, om* of the bacteria associ¬
ated with tub(*re\dosis. If a culture (»f b. koeh is covered
with a cloth of this shade of green “ all virulence ce ases.”
Mon* strange still, if a iiatient’s “radiation” is found to
be fifty-live centinu tres and if “ the pcridulum ste)ps in
resonance also with l)laek, the ptTson (*xamined is, without
doubt, suffering from hacrnorrlioids.” Tin* Knglish re¬
viewer of this book subnets this as an example of “ a lu teru-
dyne effect”.’

' Radii}-PvrvvpHou, p iri.

‘‘Medical” Radiestiiksia .S(>3

The above example is perfectly typical, t'olour-thera-
pists have “ perfected ” a permanent table of up to a hundred
diseas(\s and ailments, (*aeh with its specific shade of colour
and detectable with the aid of a pf^ndulum. Diagnosis
at a distance is also possible, say the radiesthetists. “ All
users of Radiesthctic methods ”, it is claimed, “ know
that blood or serum or a letter will k(*(‘p j)aec minute by
minute with its owner. Wc know' tlu* fact hut not the
explanation.”*

Diagnosing disease from thumb f)rinls, a specimen of
liandwTiting, photograplis, sputum or a hair has an old
familiar ring. It is a modern form of primitivi* sympathetic
magic. In primitive soeieti(\s today tlun* an^ many groups
who b(‘li(‘ve that if the nu^dieine man obtains possession
of anytliing belonging to a man, su(*h as spittle, a drop
of blood, hair or nail parings, Ik^ (‘an inflict untold harm
on the owner. Th(‘ same principle was accepted in the
concoction of medieval “ love potions and even today,
in th(‘ mor(‘ ])rimitive {)art of Europi*, inntstrval blood is
considered by local wit(‘h(‘s as particularly (Ih^elive for
such purpose's.

Diagnosis of disease by divination is widespread. lioas,
for example, cites a curious instance of this form of divining
used by the Central Eskimo an^akok or shaman : in this
case tiie suggested re‘sj)onse takes an unusual form :

“ An individual w'ith a thong plat‘<*d around liis liead lies down
beside a siek person. Tlie thong is i‘astc*n(‘d to the end of a stick
whi<^h is held in hand by the nngaknk. The nngakok then makes
interrogations as to the nature and issue of the disease. These
questions are supposed to be answered by tJie soul f>f a dead person,
in sneh a manner as to make it impossilile iV)r tie* head to he lifted
if the answer is aflirmative, while the head is raised easily if t h(; answer
is negative.” ■

It is not so big a step as it may st'cin from this divination
method of the ee'ntral Kskimoes to su(*h n)()eleTn radies-
thetic “ disease detc'ctors ” as “ Abrams’ Rox ” and the
“ Wiggl(\sworth Pathoelast ”. Underneath all the talk of
radiations, wavelengths, lu'terodyning and the utilisation

‘ Journal of the Medical Swiety /or the Study of Radiesihcnia, 194‘2.

• Boas, Centra! Eskimo^ Popular Seieiiee Monthly, LVII, p. aai.

364

Tin: PsYcnoLoaY of the Occult

of luodcrii-Jooking apparatus there resides the old and well-
tried ina^ie-evokirig formula of suggestion and autosugg(?s-
tion, delusion aiul fraud.

The first big d(‘vel()pment in medical radiesthesia was
due to Dr. Albert Abrams. Abrams, like Mesiuer before
him, was a brilliant ee(‘entric. While M(\siner attribut(‘d
the (dfeet of suggestion to animal magiu^tism ”, Abrams
postulated a. tiu‘ory of “ Kleetronie Reactions ”. The
method of medical diagnosis employed by Abrams was
found(‘d upon his purported discH>vfiry that the pn^sence
of any disease could be detected by normal percussion of
tlie stomach area. Eaeli disease, Abrams claimed, has
its owji particular variations of pitch and resonance and
its own parti(‘ular location on the stomach area where
tliese variations could be deteeted.

Abrams, after the iliscovcry ” of the alleged penaission
efleet, adopt(‘d a seientilieally untenable theory of eleetro-
inagnetism - the so-called “ electn)nie-reaetion ” theory —
to aeeouul for it. Needless to say, modern physics a!id
and modern m(*dical science hav(‘ failed to produce the
slightest cvieience for the validity e)f either th(‘ el(*ctr()nie
reaction theory or the* percussion efr(‘et; despite this,
however, Abrams’ th(M)ries, though naive, miglit w(‘ll have
attracted attention frf)m th(‘ world of orthodox sei(‘nei‘ of
liis day, had not tlie character of the man’s intellect be(‘n
(‘xposed by some of his more extnMiru' claims, such as his
professed ability to sex eggs and to diagnose disease from
sp('cimens of handwriting.

Once lauiudied on the exhilarating road of medical dis¬
covery, Abrams soon discovcTcd that ev<*ry drug ]:)ossesses
the same “ radiation ” as tliat of th(^ disease it cures. The
radiations from mercury were identical with those of J^yph-
iVis ; the radiations of quinine were similar to those of malaria,
and so on. The simple association of ideas here is too evi-
d(*nt for eornnu'nt and revc^als the essentially child-like
quality of Abrams’ intellect.

It seems (dear, noiu^ the hfss, that Abrams was able to diag¬
nose ailments and diseasc‘s with eonsidcTable success. This
in itself is not really surprising, since he himself was a
trained medieval practitioruT a point usually ignored by
his protagonists. During liis “ ek^ctronic ” diagnoses, he

MkOIC Al/’ IIAUIKSTIIKSIA

305

may not have consciously analysed liis patients’ ailments ;
hut to the c^xperienc(‘d eye of tlie trained medi(*al ])racti-
tioncr a ^reat many diseases an^ easily disecTnible at a
glaiie(‘. And evem wIkmi this is not the case, a doctor may
intuitive^ly arrive at tJie right eoiielnsion concerning the
nature of the c*ase by the palieaii/s general a])])earance and
the latter’s general eh seTiption of his symj)toms. The only
question that nmiains to be answer(‘d is how Abrams,
and those* other medical practitioners who have siM(M‘rely
followed liis lead, became subject to the* auditory illusions
involved in the eompli<*at(‘d rigmarole of percussing for
“electronic reaetieuis'flu* answer is that it is simply
one- ineu-e* instane*e- etf the- e-tfe-e-ts of autosuggest ion e>riginatifig
fre)ni an idee fiar.

Abrams, feilleiwing his pre-eone'e-ive-el iU)tions e*e)ne‘erning
liis “ e‘le‘ctre)nie re-act ions ele-cieh-d te) ceuistriict an ap-
jiaratus to simplify his pre)e*eelure. I'his st(-p resulted in
what w\as popularly kneiwai as “Abrams’ He>x ”, and was
followeel latfT by nieire comple*x pieces of apparatu . one
of w'hich he called a “ re-fle-xeijdieine ” anel the* e>the*r an
“ oseilloelast Th(*se* e*he*ap pieces of apparatus he sold

for large sums- despite the* fact that he* was alreaely a. very
wealthy man. lie and his suecesseirs alsei feiunde^el a geiod
many spc<*ial clinics in the llnite*el State's anel their number
has by no means eliminished in the* ensuing years.

Such “ machines ” as Abrams’ rc-fle‘xe)[)hone and eiscillo-
clast, Wigglcsweirth’s pathoelast and Boyd’s emanometer
are scientific absurdities. Wiggles worth’s model, feir ex¬
ample, is purportedly ele*signeel to pick up the patient’s
“ high frequency radiatiems ”, amplify them and transmit
the'Ui back “ in inverted phase ” as a curative measure.
“ Raeliations of disease* ” are thus elairne-d te) be^ “ damped
out ”! There is no neeid to comment on such facile thee:)r-
ising. Provision is also made on this apparatus for “ colour
therapists The instruction manual wliie-h is seild with
this apparatus reads like an aele)lescent’s dream e)f the
future, and one can only su.speet that these and other
similar machines arc constructed w-ith the principle aim of
fraudulently obtaining money from gullible eir suggestible
practitioners and patients. There is this to be said, how¬
ever ; where suggestion-therapy is potentially of value

366

Tnv. PsY(’m>i,(>(;Y of thk Occut.t

to the p}iti{!nt, the use of sueh hjirmless maehincs as the
pathoclast, with its impressive array of knobs, sockets,
plugs, meters, plates and coils, may sometimes be bene-
tieial to the patient. On the other hand, serious harm
may result if credulous patients sulTering from sueh diseases
as cancer or tuberetdosis—alw'ays great favourites with
radiesihelists—interpret any subjective or temporary feeling
of improved health as an indication that they are on the
way to being cured.

Tuberculosis, as is well known, is often very responsive
to the patient’s ])syehologieal state, aj>d th(Te are clinics
on th(‘ continent wdiere suggestion-therapy is used in the
treatment of this disease. With a j)artieular type of
patient it is (juite possible that sueh machines as the patho-
elast would be as effect ive a medium of bcmefieial suggestion-
therapy as any. By and large, however, their use is to
be deplored.

S\u-iv n\aehines as the above mostly rely for their “ op¬
eration ” uiKUi an alleged sensation of adhesion or friction
fell by the palm of the liand in eontaef with a metal or vul¬
canised plate. In the ease of convinced believers in the
“ ('h'etronie reaction theory ” such scMisations are undoubt¬
edly subjective, being brought about through expectation
and suggestion. Most proh'ssional users, however, can be
projx'rly classified as conscious frauds, and the fees charged
by many of them in America and Englsind leave no doubt
of the motive behiiid their use. And as long as there are
gidlible and credulous peo})lc with real or imaginery com¬
plaints and with money to burn, the* success of the “ elec-
tronist ” remains assured.

( 'haj)frr Tivraty-Thnc

THE " SrONTAXEOUS PIIESOMEXA '

TKLKPA'rilY, ('LAIlfVOVAXt’K AM) i*HK( OCX moX

JN^odkpn KXiMiiMMKX'rs ill t(‘K])Mlli\. (*l;nr\'oyan(*(%

|)r(‘Co^iiition and psycliokincsis chrivi' dingedly and nn-
ashanu‘dly IVoin ihv spontaneous ])henonieiur’ of psychical
rescareli. and whai may <aiphcmisti(*ally })v ti‘nn('d the
‘‘ induced ph(‘n<)iii(‘na ” of spiritualistic nu'diumshii).

'riie literatun' of tin* spontam^ous plienomena of psychical
research is fascinating and instruclivt . ’ (ihosts, liaiintin|rs,
poltcr^(‘ists, clairvoyant dn^ains, t(‘l(‘pathic phantasms,
propheti(‘ visions, the su])ernatural movement of ol>j(‘cts—-
all bear witness to tin* powers of liiiman s(‘ir-dece})tion,
wishful thinking and distorted recollection.

Mod<‘rn psychical rcs(*ar(*hers and parapsycliolo^ists no
lon;^(T consider “ spontaneous phenomena. to be of any
crucial value in their r(*scarelics. Tlicy arc considered as
‘‘ sup^esiive ” only.

Many of th<' psychological cxjieriences which help per¬
petuate beli<*f in these “ spontaneous phenomena ” are often
puzzling. Kveryone has had the experience of thinking
about some thing, person or event, only to hear someone
else nuaition it th<' wry m^xt instant. Or a tuni' may be
going tVirough one’s head, and suddenly someone starts to
sing or whistle it.

There is, of course, no need to postulate t(‘l(‘pathy when

‘ The reader is here referred to Dr. D. .J. West's ijil.<*restiiipr paper The
Jrwestiflat ion of Spoutaneom t.W.sr.v, Proc.S.P.K., voL 48, j)p.
264-300; 1948.

367

368

Thk Psych(m.o(;y of thk OtTn/r

this sort of Ihinp oc(‘urs. There are several ways of <*xj)laii)-
ing sueh eoineidene<\ A remark, or casual iiKadeni, is
quite likely to s(*t off a similar train of association in two
peoj)lc’s minds, particularly if they are well-ae(juainted
or share a similar background. Pure eoinei(l(‘ne(‘ is often
tlie reason; people wlio an' interest(‘d in th(' occult will
always tend to read telej)athy or elairvoyane<^ into the
simplest verbal eoineidenees. \Ineonse\ous \X)ea.l innerv-
ations, relleeh'd in slight changes in the ton<‘ of br(‘al!iing.
can be quit(‘ suflieienl to set oil* a similar train of mental
a(‘tivity in another ]i(‘rson's mind.

P(*ople who an- eonvine<'d of their own j)syehi(‘ powers
are ofte n haul of telling others that th(\v “ knew ” ol‘ some*
future- hap]>ening or distant event beffnr they (luinse-lves
were- told alxait tliem. Su(*h su})ernaturally aecpiire-d know-
leelge generally boils down to vague* surmise*s, emotional
intuitions, or me-re gm-ss-work ; those* which prove* ineorre-et
are* naturally forgotten, and the>se whi(*h prove to l)e* right
are* re*meiubere‘(i and be-eome inve-ste^d with a,u aura of ee-r-
taiiity whie'h the original hunch ” ne ver p(>sse\sse*d. Many
a ee>rreet “ Jiune-li ” of course*, e*an be* e*x]>laine*el by sub¬
conscious infe'rene*<*, sube*e)nseiously peree-ive-el eue*s, or
erypte innesia.

Dhfams

Those who kee*p on the w'ate*h ff)r clairvoyant, te*l(‘pathie
or })re>phe‘tie eli’canis are? se*lelom elisappointe-d.

Everyone, at e)ne* time or anothe*r, has hael elreains wdiieh
api)ear to ])ossess striking eM>ineielene*e*s witli exte*rnal events
not know'Ti to the elre*amer at the time* of dre*aming. Hut
when we e*onside*r the* enormous multitude? of dre?ams sueh
e*oineiek?necs are? only to be expe*e*te*(l from time to time.
Most j>e*ople re-eognize this fact. Hut to ojie who believers
himself to be “psychic” sueh eoineidt*nees are e'emvineing
proof of supe rnatural pe)w^ers.

When two people dream of the same thing, the “ jisychie ”
will not attribute it to ee)ineiden(?<i e>r the influene^e? of similar
i]iter<*sts, oecu])ations, background, hopes or fears ; he* will
attribute it to tcle*pathy. Similarly, a dream of someone

(lying is sure to be eouneeted with ilie subseijiieut lu-ws of
ail iietual dc^ath, how(‘V(T irrelevant.

The l)eliev('r in the sujiernatual will always be nady to
interpret sueh dream (‘xperienei's in th(‘ light most favourabh^
to his beliefs. H(* dee<‘iv(‘s liimsilf. and Ik* often (l(*eeives
others.

,1. W. Dunne's book. An Krperinivnt icith Thnc, er(‘at(‘d a
gr(‘at int(T(*st in propli(‘tie dr(‘aius. To a(‘eoimt for sueli
dn^ams the autlau* built u[) an interesting and logieal mathe-
niatieal theory. But as Max JManek p()int(-d out, whih.*
tlK*re was notliing wrong with Dunne's inatlninaties, tin*
premises u])on they wiTe based m\])ri»ved, and

\v<‘r(‘ incapable of proof.

Dunne's method was to note down upon awakening all
that lie (*ould ri'inember of his dr(‘ams, and look for eoinei-
<l(‘nees during tin* n(*\t few days. Naturally, he found
pl<‘nty. IIowev(‘r. \vli(‘n tlie Society for lV;y(*hieal R(‘s(*areh
later r(‘pcat<*d Duun(‘'s dr(*am (;xp(Tim(iits, tliey FaiUal to
eoafirm his lindings.

Dn‘ams whi(*h apjx'ar to be propln tie can In* accounted
for in a numlx'r of ways. For the l)<*li(‘V(‘r in the super¬
natural nothing is (*asi(‘r tliaii transposing tin* dat(‘s of an
event and a subsecpient dream by a pnx'ess of wishful
thinking; thi* dream is mistakenly recalled as having oe-
eurrt^d before the actual oe(‘urrenee which it resembled.
Many hon<‘st jx‘ojil(‘ have d(‘C(‘ived tlu'insf’lves in this way.

Then* are those ''jirojihetie " dreams which bi'ing about
tluar fullilment by subconsciously suggesting a parti(*ular
course of action to the dreamer. I’hcu again, dreams about
allothi*r person may app(‘.ar innocuous enough, until a death
or ac(‘ident occurs to the person dreamed of. The drtam
is then interpreted and subsequently reealled as a mysterious
portent. For example, a wife dreams of her husband wh»> is
away at sea, as she is likely to do quite* oftim. I'hen tlu*
news arrives that the husband lias died. If she has dreamt
of him recently the dream is instantly connected with the
death. Within a week or two the good woman is going around
saying that on the night her husband died she had “ warning
of it in a dn^am ”.

Dreams which appear to be jirophetie or clairvoyant may
often be explained by subconscious inferene(‘ on the part

370

The Psychoj.ogy of tuf. Oocui.t

of tlic dreamer. And tal(‘s of lost objects having been found
by dr(‘ams and crystal-gazing nia}" easily be due to cryptom-
nesia or “ hidden memory

Information which the dreamer has j)reviously ac(piired
from a chance r(‘mark or a glimpse of a newspaper heading,
and subseciuenlly forgotten, may emerge in dreams to
provide yet more ‘‘ proof’ of the clairvoyant powers of the
mind.

Perhaps tlu' most (*onfusing cases of psychic ” dreaming
are those in which an individual dreams tzvice about som(‘
person (or object)- once bfforv and on(‘(‘ afhr sonu* parti¬
cular ev(‘nt connected with the jxTson dreanu^d of. The
dreamer may subseqmaitly ee>nfuse the two dn^ams and
become conviiU'cd that he dreamed of the eveui before it
actually occurred.

A “psychic” exp(‘rienc(‘ commonly reported is that of
seeing a plac<\ person or obj<‘et never pr(‘viously encountered,
but which nevertheless seems familiar. Sometimes this is
put down to having “ s<‘en it before in a dream ” ; a fre¬
quent exj)lanation is that of having eru'ountered it “ in a
previous existence This type of memory delusion is
generally referred to as deja ™, and the false recognition of
sounds or words as deja eaUnidu, It is usually associated
with fatigu<‘ and is common in certain neurotic conditions.

The Psychic Anecdote

FAcry psychic anecdote has to have an originator. There
are, broadly speaking, two types of people who set the ball
rolling.

First, there are those who, fiiced with an experience or
series of events which tliey cannot understand, fall back on
the supernatural as the only possible (explanation.

Second, there are those who, firmly believing in the occult
(or in their own supernatural^ powers), are continually on
the look-out for its occurrence; these people may read
telepathy or clairvoyance or the actions of disearnate spirits,
into the most prosaic details of everyday life.

Thk Psy(‘|[ic Ankcdoti:

371

During the first st«ge of the development of the psyehie
anecdote, the narrjitor usually tells his story, not as some¬
thing he cannot understand, but simply as another example
of the supernatural in his own experience. To him telepathy,
elairvoyanee or the actions of disearnate spirits are the
explanation of the event or experience in fpiestion. And
so, when he narrates his stf)ry, the details beeonu* subordi¬
nated to the (*entral theme of telepathy or some similar
idea ; the story is no longer ol)jeelive.

The (irst narration of the psychic* story fixes the pattern
of subsecpient narrations. Since* the* point of telling such a
story is to lx* believed, the narrator in his enthusiasm will
tend to add (*mb(‘llishments, (‘inphasizing favourable points,
omittiiig unfavourable points. Aft(*r two or three repetitions
these additions and cauissions will become part of his memory
of the incident ; he will lx* prepared to swear to their truth
with absolutes sincerity. This process, in which the imagina¬
tion becomes fused with the memory, is known to psycho¬
logists as retrofipective falsification.

The final developrm*nt of the psychic* story is reachc'd
when the distorted version of the event bec‘omes so com¬
pletely })art of his memory that no argument will avail to
eonvinc*e him of its falseness. This almost inv'ariably occurs
with those who believe* strongly in the occult. Furthermore^
the whole cumulative prcK*ess tends to make the* original
experiences seem a great deal more striking and distinctive
than they re*ally were ; and the stc»rv will often emerge with
a trenehaney and simplicity which baffles tlie rational
listener.

People* of the highest intelle'ct may deceive* themselves
in this way (witness Judge Hornby's story below). Well-
educated aiiel otherwise int(*lligent j)eople will write the
most ludicrous and impossible* stories with transparent
honesty and sincerity of purpose. The* fact is that once a
supernatural intcr|)retation e)f an event has become accepted^
the memory of that event will become inevitably and irre-
voc*aV)ly distorted.

In a family of suggestible people subsequent conversation,
speculation and retelling the story may result in the anecdote
bec'oming objectified to a remarkable degree. When the
psychieial researcher eventually gets a written account of

372

The Psyc hology of the Oc c ttlt

the occurrence, he is often presented with a coherent story
with numerous witnesses concernijig the uaiiK s, dates aiid so
forth.

The cxleut to whicli false c<n'rol>orative detail can he
V)rou^}it into tlie narrati\ e of a personal j)syehi(*experi¬
ence is really siirj)risijj^. A perfect exanij)le of this form
of retrospeeti\ e falsifieaf iiai is to he found in the w(‘ll-known
booK (‘utitled An Advtnhnr. ' writt(‘n f)y Miss Mol>erI<‘y
and Miss Jonrdain, two ladies of the liii^hest a(‘adeini(‘
standing. An Adxrnhnr is probably tlie vvcn’ld’s irreatest
ghost story, and wluai it lirst ajjpear(‘d it was regarded by
maiiy as (he culminating proofs f>f things sufua’iiatural.
It is. unfoiiunately, o])(‘n to criticism at almost every ])oint.*

IIatjxtincs, (biosrs am) AppARirioxs

Most of the stories of hauntings and ghosts in the annals
of ])syehi(*al research date from the pre-1914 era. (Credulity
was stronger in those days, and V>elief in the* supernatural
correspondingly nior<^ potent ; suggestion and autosugges¬
tion had more fertile ground to take root in. P(‘oj)l(‘ who
believed in ghosts and ap])aritions had only to have an odd
dream or hallucinatory experience in a strange room to tliink
it haunted. Or if a place liad aecpiired tin* re})utation of
being haunted tlie sight of an unrecognised ligure in tin?
half-darkness would naturally bceom(‘ transformed into a
spectre or aj)parition ; any unusual or strange noises, too,
would add to the place’s ghostly re])utatiou ; temperatures
would begin to drop and rise ; odd smells would occur, and
perfectly ordinary minor oecairrenees would b(‘e()me charged
with mystery.

The similarity of form shared by most ‘‘ true ” ghost
stories oftxn lends them a spurious air of objectivity. The
similarity of ghosts stories, however, is traceable to the

■ First published in 1911 under the pseudonyms Elizabeth Morison and
France's Lament.

• See .1. R. Stiirge-Whiting’s detailed criticism, Mystery of Versailles
1938. See also the following reviews : Proc.S.P.R., vol. 25,
p. 35t3 ; Journ.S.P.R., vol. 27, pp. 139-140 ; Journ.S.P.R., vol.
35. p. 178.

1Iai:xtin(;s. Ghosts and Appakitioxs

infiucnci* of V^iciorifin roniaiitic litcratun* in wliicli Mi(‘ oJiost
or apparition was a familiar and storcotyped tlHanc.

In all recorded (*as(*s of haunting* tlu-rc is never any mted
to assume anything otluT tlian purely j)syelioloj:!;i(‘al eaiises
oonscn^av^t wilVi sujpjrrslion and au1os\i<v^estk)ii. Numbers
of hauntings ' may p<‘rhaps liav<“ tli(‘ir orij^in in ill-adjusted
individuals subjeel to dissociation ‘‘ who can ^aiii som<‘ relief
trom inner eonlliet by naans of a hysterical projection of
ghostly visions whieli serve to exe^ise their own failure ”, *

It is in the held of o])tieal illusion that tin* most striking
and eonvineing tales of ghosts and a|)paritions occur. Opti¬
cal illusions can be extremely eom[)l(‘x and extraordinarily
deceptive. Here an* two good illustrations of an optical
illusion which hav(‘ no occult signiti(*anei* :

1. A man riding a bicycle at night jiassed over a |)i(‘ce of
tin which clathTcd loudly. His (‘ompanion. who liad l)een
riding ten or twenty ycTcls l)chind. ovt‘rtook him in agitation,
sw’caring that he liad se(‘n him Hung from his machifu* in
the glocan.

2. A botanist student in Paris passts a Restaurant and
sees tlu‘ words '' Verbasenm thapsusoi» the door. After
j)roc(‘(‘ding a few paces he turns ba(*k, astonished that the
name of such a plant should a])])car o\\ a restaurant door.
He reads the inscription again, vvhi<‘h was simply bouilloir'.
The cause of his illusion was clear, for t}u‘ ])opular Freneii
name for the plant Verbasenm thapsus is lumUlon blanc, "

In the above two example's we see* how u simple association
(»f ideas ca.i» lead to the* most complete* and perfect illusions.
The mind deceives itsi'lf comphdely. Many such an illusion
based on (‘xpeetaney, has provided tin* basis for sup{)osedly
telepathic or clairvoyant phenomena

Two inonurm'iital >vorks on gln^sts and apparitions aj)-
peart'd about the <*nd of the last (‘(‘utury, which psychical
R'searehers still regard as classics. In tSSfJ (hirney, Myers
and Podmon* jmblishcd their Phantasms of the Living. And
in 19(K5 F. W. Myi rs produced his Human Personality and
its Survixud of Bodily Death, Hoth ran to two lengthy

‘ West, 1). J., .Journ.S F.H., a«», l!US, p. 2aa.

® Parisfi, p. IPl.

3 Parish, op. eil., p. 198.

374

The Psychology of the Occult

volumes, and both had considerable influence owin^ to tlic
high intellectual standard of the authors.

They were based on carefully recorded and sifted evidence
of the appearance of apparitions to various people. And
nev(T was talent so wasted. The “ evidence ” they mar¬
shalled so assiduously w^as almost worthless. Gurney, Myers
and Podmore even went so far as to admit that a small
number of “ fairly conclusive cases ” was the best they
had to offer, and that the vast majority w^ere confirmatory
only and not crucial *

Even with the best authenticated stories of th(' super¬
natural there is always a lapse of time between the original
event which fired the imagination, and its committnuMit
to paper. A purported telepathic, clairvoyant or j)rophetic
experience must more or less correspond to some ext(Tnal
event to render it veridical; and theonly admissablct videncc
in such cases, is an account of the experience wTilten down,
or otherwise recorded before the external event takes [>la(rc
—in a diary, a letter, or other document.

But throughout both books there is a total la(*k of such
contemporary written evidence; and if the original ( x-
periences had really been as striking as they w<‘rc later
claimed to be, this is incredible. In Phantasms (f the lAving^
for example, not one example of contemporary written
evidence is to be found in 702 stories, including 350 at first
hand.

The authors introduced a theory of telepathic stimuli,
of sufiicient intensity to engender genuine sensory hallucina¬
tions. But as Parish pointed out, the great bulk of psychi¬
cal research records conc(*rning ghosts, phantoms, hauntings
and a})paritions an* little more than records of optical illusion,
delusion and dreams. Parish analysed the cases upon which
the above tw’o books w'ere based, and concluded that a large
percentage of them contained unmistakable evidence of a
dream state of consciousness. ^

The fact is that scholars (and scientists) make poor psytdii-
cal researchers ; they are usually too used to breathing an
atmosphere of trust and intellectual objectivity. Thi*y

^Phantasms of the Livings abridged edition, 1918, p. 127.

® Parish, E,, Hallucinations and Illusions, p. 104.

IIauntincjs, (tHosts and Apparitions

;375

are seldom equipjxMi f<»r a lusk which rcfjiiircs the irainiii"
of a j)syehologist, the flair of a detective, and th(‘ <‘xperience
of a conjuror.

Many an apparition lias liad its ^eiu*sis in a simple
dream about a d<‘ad friend or r(‘laliv(‘; with many })eople
it would not take* them long to convince^ tluansclves that
they had reeeived a visitation “ or warning of some kind.
The percipient will then keep on flu* watch for any outstand¬
ing event or dire ha|)pening whicli might be iuterpr(‘ted as
fulfilling the premonition. Inevitable he finds one. The
event itsi‘lf is then imported into the memory of the* original
dream, and is narrat<*d accordingly.

Kv(‘n the most intelligent psychical investigator it is
often ditheuU to avoid putting leading questions ; many
a r(‘cord of a purported supernatural exjiericaiee has rece ived
spurious coherenec through this hajipening. The psychical
rc‘search('r. may, by his qm^stions, give shape and form to
a story which only existed as a jumble of vague ideas at the
back of the narrator’s mind. Gurney and Myers wer(‘ only
too euljiable in this respect. More than once lh(‘v had to
retract what th(\v had pr(‘sented to the world as well
authenticated evidiaice Their article on Sir Edmund
Hornby's apparition is an excellent cas(‘ in point.

Sir Edmund Hornby was one-timt' C'hief Judge of the
Supreme (\mrt of China and Japan at Shanghai. His
story appeared in the Nineteenth Century in 1SS4. nim* years
after the following events occurred :

On the night of January 19th 1875, the Judge records,
he heard a tap at his bedroom door, and a i*crtain news¬
paper (‘ditor, with whom the Judge was well ac(juainted,
walked in. He ignored the Judge’s reipiests to l(*ave the
room and sat down on the foot of tin* bed. T1 k‘ tinu*. Sir
Edmund noted, was twenty minutes past one. The purpose
of the visit was to obtain the Judge's statement concerning
the day's judgment for the morning paper. After refusing
twice, the request was granted for fear that further argument
would wake Mrs. Hornby. Finally the Judge angrily told
his visitor that it was the last time he would allow any re-
port(*r insid(* his house. The other replied : This is the

last time I shall ever see you anywhere When, he had
gone, the Judge looked at the clock ; it was (‘xaetly half

870

Till. Psy(’iu)L<)(;y or Tin: 0('( i i;r

past I^ady Hornl)v then awoke, and llie .Judye told Jier

what had ha])peued.

Next morning Judge Hornby repeatt^d tlie story to his
wife while dr(‘ssiiig. Wluai he went to eourt he was some¬
what shocked to liear that his visitor had died during tin*
night, at alxnit oiu' o*elo(*k. In tti<* dead man's not(‘t>ook
was the headline: “The Chief Judg(‘ ga\e judgimnt this
morning in tliis eas(‘ to the following etieet " ; and then
followed some lines of incle(‘ipherable sliorthand. Tlie
result <»f tin* in(|m*st showed that lu' had died of some form
of h(‘art diseas<‘. Tlu* eoroma*, at the Judgt's pri‘\'ious r(‘-
(juest, as(*ertained that the dead man could not hav'e l(‘ft
his liouse during th(‘ two hours bef(»r(' hv di(‘d.

When lie got home tli(‘ Judge aski'd his wiiV to n peat
wliat he had said to tier during the night, and lu‘ “ madt* a
brief note of her n^plies and of I Ik* facts

The Judge re<‘ords : “As I said then, sf> I say now I
was not asleej), but widi* awake. AfliT a lajise of nine years
my memory is (|uile el(*ar (»n tin* subject. I lia\e not tlie
least d<»ubt I saw tin* man hava* not tin* l<*ast doubt that
1h<‘ conversation took place betwaon us."

The abovo is a resume of the Sir Kdmund Hornby\ full
and detail<‘d account as (hirnev and Myers took it d()wai.
Lady Hornby conlirmed tin* facts, “as far as she was cogni¬
zant of th(‘m

(hirney, Myers and Sir Kdmund, however, were due for
something of a shock, A later issu<‘ of the Ninrfrrnih fVu-
iurij rev(*al<(l the following facts :

1. The (‘ditor in (ju(*stion was tin* Hcv. Hugh liung Nivens
editor of the Shanghai C'ouriiT. The actual time of his (h‘ath
was nim* o’clock in tlic morning.

"2, At that time .ludge Hornby was unmarried. His
wife had died two years jireviously and lie did not r(‘-marrv
until three months after the events tie d(‘S(Tibed.

8. No iiKpiest was held on the death of the Itev. Nivens.

t. Then* was ik' record of any such judgment as tlu* Judge
mentioned, and upon which the whole story turned.

lV)i;rr.iu;i:iSTS

B77

Judfji* Hornby, wln ri raced with these facts (*oinrneiit(‘(l :

If I had not Ix licna^d. as 1 still t)(*lieve, that ( verv word of
it, th(* stoiT, was a('eurat(*, and tliat my memory was to be
|■eli(‘d on. I should no| ha\(‘ (‘xcr told it as a jxrsonal
exp(‘rienct‘.'‘

1’lu‘re is no n<‘ed at all to assume that the story was
consciously rabri(*ated. It is suOieitail to assunu' that a
yood deal <»f it was the j)roduet of a vivid dreaTu which was
later confused with reality, and rationalised and (elaborated
fhiriii^r subs('(|uent eonV(‘rsations. It is a fairlv tv|)ieal
ease (»f retros|)(‘etivt falsifi(*ation.

Poi/ri:H(;Kisrs

Once a {xrson has come iimh r the inlUanete of suptr-
natural beliefs his niind e(‘as(‘s to fiuu'tion at its normal
lev(‘l <»r reasoning; tlie simpl(est things may tak(‘ on the
appearance of mystifying (‘iiigmas. NowIktc is this better
illuslrat<ed than in j)olt<M‘geist hauntings. Oma^ tli(‘ belief
in th(' presen(*(‘ of a j>olterg(ast exists, any odd noise or un¬
usual accident will be atlribut(‘d to tlu* agejicy of the play¬
ful spirit

Poltergeist traditions occur in all ])arts (jf the world. And
the })h(‘nom(‘na ’’ are surprisingly similar. In many
primitive societies it takes the form of stone-tlirowing
In Kiirope and America it almost in\ariably manifests its(*lf
in eonm^etion Avith one person in tlu‘ liousehold usually
a young adoh'sec^nt. Sj)iritualists say that such adolesecaits
ar(‘ psyeliie that tlnw ‘'attract th(‘ poltcTgeist which
(‘annot " manifest " itself without their presence. The truth
of course, is that the adol(*se(‘nt girl or boy is sol(‘ly respon-
sil>le for tlu* production of j)oltergeisl j)henomena ; in almost
ev(Ty ease Avhieli has been (M)m]>et(‘ntly investigat(*d, the
polt(‘rg(‘isl activity has (aided ir) tlu* child b(‘ing (‘aught
red-handed in tric'kery. Siu’h ehildren are ns\uilly mal¬
adjusted. SoTuetimes they liave physical abnormalities;
they find in poltergeist trickery an oiiiU't for tliwartod in¬
stinct. The skill with which, after a lew weeks practice,
the child produces the“ phenomena arc* often extraordinary.

378

Tfii’, FsyrHoi.ocY of tiik Occui.t

In Ihc easy ol’oUlcrly pi'opU' who coniplain of being pricked,
poked or tickled by persecuting poltergeists the plienoniena
are usually attributable to neurotic delusions, or in some
eases tactile Inillueinations due to incipient psychosis.

It has also been suggested that certain poltergeist plieno-
meiia such as mysterious knocks. taj)pings, thumpings,
tickings, buzzings, rumblings and hissings may sometimes
have their origin in the Jiot uncommon complaint called
-hallucinatory noises <-aused by intlammation of
the middle ear. Such noises may appear to the percipient
to reach him from outside sources.

Chapter Tri^eaty-four

ESP' EXPERIMENTS AND THE PROBLEM OF
SENSORY CUES

TPhk riTFALLS which lie in the path of tiu* expiTiniiMiliT
ill telepathy or (!lairvoyane(‘ are seldom aj)})re(*iat(Ml by
those who are conducting the experiments. In the past
many experimenters with mediiuns and '' ])sychi(!s *’ have
produced apparent evidem^e for th(‘ cxistciu'c of super¬
natural faculties, simply because they have not taken into
account such factors as s(‘nsory hyperaeuity, the invol¬
untary dissemination of sensory cues, and, equally im¬
portant, the unconscious r(*ception of those cues by the
“ telepathic ” or ‘‘ elairvQyant ” p(T(i})ient.

Involuntary articulation, from its most rudinu^idarv
forms to genuine unconscious whispering, plays a V(‘ry
large* role in the ‘‘ thought-rc'ading performancc\s of many
mt‘diunis. But the avcTage mcHlium rc'Iic's mainly on h(‘r
sitters’ c*onscious or involuntary reactions to her verbal
remarks, hc^sitations, liints, gi*sturi‘s and semi-arti(*ulated
words. She fishc's for rc*aetions whi(*li will give Iict a clue
to the (ireumstances. the* nani(*s of relative's, and other
personal dcdails of her client’s life.

It is not j)ropose*d, howevcT, tc' e‘nte‘r here* into the* ntoduff
operandi e)f the sueee*ssful professional me*dium. It is
sutlicient to obscTve* at this point that the une-onseious
presentation of sensory cue's, partieadaiiy auditory euies,
may satisfactorily aec’ount for iiinunuTable* instances where¬
in the sitter has been puz/Je*d by the sujiposc'd e*lair\oyant

» Kxtra-Sensory P(;r(H?ptioii: A general U*rin wliieli iiicludrs t(‘lt*pathy,
elairvoyiineM;, “ ])re*(H>^iiition," etr.

379

:m) Tin. Psvcii(M.o(;Y of tiik Occi'i/r

])OW(T of tin* niodiuni. Nowhcn* lins lJu‘ oprralion of Ihis.
factor been mort^ effectivtly clis|)ia}(*(l Ilian in the experi¬
ments (‘aiTit‘(l out l)y lli(‘ wortliy [)ioneer inv(‘stii:];at(»rs of
medinniistie ahilifies.

The ^n*eat hulk «>f experiments of C’liowriii and Naum
Kotik in Uussia. of Aliramowski in Poland, of Pa^cMisteela r
in M( ‘\ie(», of Seinnoll and Mafhre in France*, of VVassiliewski
and Tisehiier in (hrniany, of the* Sinclairs in America to
nuaition only a IV‘\v of the* more* serious earlier cxperinuMilcrs
- pro\ icied ide al situations for file involuntary prcsentalion
of auditory cues. Kven Hiched. vvlio was vi‘ry far IVt)m
\ iewin^ siieli expcriineaits witliont bias, observed that
with Kotik's two mediums llu* ‘‘t(*l(‘pathie transmission"
usually took a Jhrmr pimnclUiur. and (piestioned the* whole
validity of Kotik's conclusions" mainly on that a(*eonnt.
Y(‘t b> anyone una<*(]uainte(l with the possibilitv of sliirht
artieulat(*d cues bcaiit* conveyeel in\(>luntarily to tlie per-
eipienl, Kotik's experiments must app(‘ar imprissi\(‘.

In the earlier (Idlrvoiptai e\|)erim(*nts it was usual for
the percipient t(» try and j^ucss words in sealtn! en\('lo|)es.
objects in sealed Ixvxes. or <lrawinj»*s in lo(‘ki‘d bri(‘f eases.
In this t\j)e <»f experimc*nt the medium often ae*hie\ed a.
veTV hij^h eh*o;ree* e)l‘ sue*eess, but e>nly in those* eases \vh(‘n
the expe rimente*r or his assistant knew the nat ure of the item
to l)e divineel, which was usually the* e*asr. In Irlrpathff
exjKriments, when the* ‘*a^<‘nt" is ae*tually eemeentratiug
on or looking at the item to be* transmit teel, tlie seeipe* alforded
f(>r the transmissie)n e)f e*ues by inveiluntary artieulalion
is e)b\'ie)usly inere*asc‘d, anel even in epdte* recent te‘le*pathy
ex])eriments alle)W'ane*e* has se*leiom be*e*n maele* tor this
fa(*te)r.

Dr. K. Ala'amenvski's experiments" are* e)f particular
int(*r(‘sl in this eoime*e*t iem. In 1914, in his e*apaeity as
heael ed' the* Laborate)ry of the* Pedisli Psyelie)logieal Institute
in \\'arsaw% he condueteMl a leing seTie*s e)f purjieirteMl tele¬
pathic experiruenis in which lie*, acting as agent, held the
percipient’s hand. In this iuann(‘r uj) to fifty per cent,
succevss in transmission was obtainexl ; but Abramowski

• Ko1 ik, N., Dir Kmattafinn dvr psycho-physischvn Ktirr^iv^ (ironzfragen
(le*s Nervcii iirui S<"<*leiiU*iK*ns, ai, Wicstmden, ItlOS.

» Abramowski, K., Lv Subvonsvivni Nmmah Paris 1911-.

Esi* KxPKRTMFN’rs ; Pkohlem f)F Sensory ('ties 881

:iidnntt(‘(l that this was due in part, to lh(‘ uiieons(Mous pre¬
sentation and assiiiiilatioFj of sensory cues. Nevertheless,
he l>eli(‘Ved that tlie unjmM-edcnttd percentage' of accurate
jriiesses could only tx* ('xplained by means of telepathy.
In making this assumption he certainly erre^d ; not even
the* nK>st sanguine e)f mode*rn ESP exfXTiinenters could
he)j)e to rival Jiis plu'nomenal results.

The main lesson to he* le*arjie*el from A})ramowski\ ex-
p(Time‘nls in telepathy. whi<‘h he* ine'luded in his otherwise
exee*lle*nt |)syehoio^rical treatise Le Suhconscicnt \ornial,
is the* (*xtrae)relifjary extent te) whie*h e*ertain individuals
may e*e>rre*e*tly ])ere*(‘i\(‘ and inhrpred slight aiid uneon-
seie)usly elisseininated sensory e*ue*s.

In Knglanel aiul America eTitie'ism of e*x])(*riments in psyedii-
eal rese*ar(*h has bee n sporaelie and inenee‘tual. In (h‘rmany,
he)we‘ve*r. many books have l)e*en |)ut)Iished eiuriiifj^ tlie*
present e*e*ntnry attacking the* she)rte‘e)min^s e)f sue‘h (‘xperi-
ments and inve'stiyations. The most (‘flee'tive* e*e>unter-
blasts to the su[)e‘riiaturalism e)f (*a?dier psye‘hical re.s(*areh
have* b(*e*n writte*n by Max Ho])p‘ who ee)]idiiet(*d expe'ri-
jiients e)f Ins own on traelitional line*s without tlie le*ast
evidence of tele*pathy or elairve)yan(*e feirtheomiiifif, and
by Moll anel HaiTwalel, ne)te*el (ierman |)syehe»le){jists. Moll
possessed a wide* kne)wledi^e of psye*hie*al rese'ar(‘h which
showeel liis fimdanuntal inte-rcsl in the* subject, yet he* hael
no he\sitatie)n in re^je'ctin^ the oe*eult theories of the psychical
re\se‘arelie*r. In his l)e)e)k Prophezeitn} vnd Hellschod' he
explaine-d a f^reat deal of the apparently supe*rnatural pe)wers
of tele'pathists, mediums and clairvoyants as elue to se^nsory
hyperaeuity. Baerwald in his exe*ellemt benik. Die ht-
tellekiuellen Phdtmnene,’^ also pe)inte*d out the larye part
playe*el by sense)ry hyj)e*raeuity anel the unee)nseie)us elis-
se‘ininatie)n e)f cues in psyediieal research expe rinunts.

It is ne)table that the edforts e>f German savants te) ejuash
the gre)wm{r me)ve*ment e)f “scientific occultism ”, as psychi¬
cal re\se*are?h was e^alleel for many ye ars in Germany, largely
succe<‘elcd. OtluT factors helpeel, and during the last

* Uber Ilelhehen^ Berlin 101 a.

* Stutt^rart, 1022.

^ Berlin, 1025 ; s(*eonel vol. in the series Der Okkultismua in Urkunden,
eeliteei ])y Max l)esse>ir.

382

Thi: PsYCH()i.or.Y ov tue Orcui/r

twenty-fiv(' years no developnu‘nt in psychical r(‘search
parallel to that which has grown up in Britain and the
United States lias occairred in Germany. Bonn Univer¬
sity made a small efl’ort to instigate scientific psychical
research experiments under Dr. llans BcndiT in 1933,
but nothing of any importance mal(‘rialised. The truth
appears to be that the Germans have been far better ac-
quaint(‘d with the fallacies involved in the type of investi¬
gation cxcmplifu'd by ESP (xperinu^nts than have the
English or th(‘ Americans.

Sen so ry 11 y pv: r ac kw y

TIktc arc* many ways in whi(*h the “ telepathic '' or
“ clairvoyant ” percipient can gain information tlirough
normal sc'nsory channels. The telepathics agent, for instance,
may provide intcTpretablc* cues by involuntary muscular
rnoA^emenls detec'tablc^ by any of the thri‘e senses of sight,
hc'aring c)r touch. Vaudeville* tek‘pathists who use* such
means as these arc known as muscle-readcTS The
telepatliie percipient, also, may be aided by a highly traitu‘d
or hyperacute scmsc of touch, hearing or vision, enabling Iiini,
in certain circumstance's, to gain valuable' sensory cues wliere
the average person would perceive nothing.

People naturally vary from one another in the acuteness
of their various senses. Sensory hyperacuity which owes its
existcnc'c to an abnormally low threshold of sensation due to
physiological cause's, i.e. when the nerve receptors are them¬
selves measurably more sensitive' than the normal person’s,
is usually referred to as sensory hyperaesihesia. Genuine
hypc'rac'sthcsia, however, is a relatively rare })henomenon
and there is little evidence that it is rc'sponsible for extra-
chance scoring rates in ESP experiments. The kind of
sensory hyperav'^uity found among ESP percipients is often
the result of training or practise*. Even when this is not the
case* sensory hyperacuity is almost always due to psychologi¬
cal, not physiologicral, factors. A state of increased concen¬
tration ancl attention, for example, renders the senses more
acute in effect than when the individual is borc'd or distracted.

Alternatively the person who possesses a natural mental

SkNSO K Y H V J> KH A (M I T V

alertness, with a facility for hne diserimination. and havS
what is cail(*d a ‘‘ ^ood ear ’’ or a “ giKxl eye ” has, in general,
far more subtlety of sc^nse-peretpiion than the naturally
indolent whose ni(‘nlal (Hjuipinent only enables liini to deal
with the more obvious sounds and sights which reach him.
The former type can develop his already superior sensory
faeultif‘s to an extent which often appears incredible. The
Australian aboriginal tracker, for ('xain])le, wlio rai)idly and
uiKTringly follow s up a vnsual trail invisible^ to tlie w hit(‘-nian ;
the proverbial North American Indian wdio posscssc^s “ the
eye of an eagle ; tin* musician wdio can distinguish simul¬
taneously a great ^ ariel y of overtone s when a bell is struck —
overtones which to the majority of people constitute' at most
tw'o or three separate* sounds ; none of lh(‘se is due in any way
to hyperaesthesia but to training and j)raetiee plus a natural
aptitude.

Genuine hvperaesth(‘sia denotc-s an abnormal sensitivity
of the physiological sense* organs themselves. Although the
eye can, wuth training, Ix'come a more ])erfect instnunent,
by enablitig the perci])i(‘nt to use the muselc s of his eye to
better advantage*, this does not of itsc'lf constitute* hyp(*r-
aesthesia. Similarly, with some hysterical subjects extreme
sensitivity to pain may occur without the least physical
change in the sensory organs : the s(‘iisitivity here is due to
psychological causes alone. Under hypnosis some hysterical
subjects can be made to see and hear far better than they can
normally.

The term hyperaesthesia is commonly used in connection
with psychical r(*seareli experiments and investigations. It
w ill be seen from the above, however, thfit its continued use
would serve only to eonfuse the issue. Hyperaesthesia
ref<*rs only to certain abnormal sensitiveness of the sensory
nervt* t(*rmiimls themselves. Th(* term sensory hyjyeracuity,
which is altogether more appropriate, may denote either an
unusual sensitivity in the percipient's reactions to given
sensory stimuli due to psychological causes, or an increased
efficiency of any of the senses brought about by training
and practi(*e. It depends largely on the psy(*hological
constitution of the percipient. Some peo})lc could never
become tea-tasters while others could n(*vcr become piano-

384

ThK PSYCHOLOCiY OF TIIK OcX TIT

tuners, even thou^^h their physical sensory e(piipnu*nt were
perfect.

Sonic individuals possess naturally hyperacute* si^nsory
faculties, although pronounced hyperaeuity is eorn|)arativ'ely
rare* without traininj^. It is, however, these rare inelividnals
with abnormally devclopeel sensory fae*ultie‘s to whom we*
must turn our attention if we are to explain some* of the
apparently iiu'Xjilieable* re‘sults j)re>duee*el in nuTnb(‘r< of ESP
expeTiine‘nts.

\Villian\ James rightly observed that the limits of the
penvers of the human niinel are unknown ; the ran^e of its
pe)ie‘ntial abilities is virtually une‘\plor(‘(l territe)ry. Su(?h
phe'nomena as li;|Thtnin^ niathe‘matie‘al eale*ulate)rs, infant
inusie*al jirexli^ies. a(*e'urate i*s1imation of tinu* inteTvals
whilst aslee*]), increased muscular stre‘ii{{tli anet powe*rs of
ceince'iitratiem unele‘r hypneisis all the se* hint at the i*\iste*nee
of mental ]K>tentialiti(*s about which we kne>w e*omparaiively
little.

Hypnotised subje‘ets not iiifrecjuently use their normal
faculties with e*onsiderably yre*ate‘r e‘llie*ie‘ne*y than whe*rj they
are fully eonseious. They may lift gre-ater we ights, exhibit
greater aeuleiie ss eif sight or he*ariiig and, in ge‘n(‘ral, e*xe*reisc
their talents with increased success. This is be*e*ause* suggest¬
ible subjeels can usually be* brought te) a state* in whiedi they
are entirely eonee*ntrat(*el upon erne* task in hanel to the e‘X-
clusiem e)f every tiling else*. Seirne indivieluals achieve* such
an extention of their normal pe)W( rs spe)ntan(*ousjy without
the use eif hypneisis, and this applies partie*ularly to the* sfiherei
of auditeiry pcrce*ptie)n. With the hvpnotis(*el siibje*e*t the
sensory faculties may seimetimes be heighteneel tei a de'gre e
reaching genuine hyperaeuity.

Such a heiighte*ning of the se*nse^s, whetlmr se*lf-indueed or
brought about by hypneisis, couu's from concentrating every
mental faculty te) the limit of its elficicncy. Such concentra¬
tion may be a subee)nscious process, the subje^ct remaining,
to all inteaits and purposes, quite relaxed. The gre'at value
of hypnosis is that it frees the subject from those inhibitions
and self-consciousness which otherwise stop him reaching
that peculiar pitch e)f concentration where his mental faculties
achieve the maximum cHicicney.

Experiments in increased sensory acuity by means of

Skxsoky Cuks

385

hyj)iu)sis liavr, in tli(‘ niain, been confined to sul)j(‘cls with
hysterical t<*n(leneics. Tli<‘ n^lalionsliip ))(^twecn hysteria
and hypnosis is a close* one, and tnany hyslt^rical })ati<‘nls in
the ])asf have* she)Wii a hi^h el(*^re*c of spoiilanceHis sciise)ry
acuity. Many nueliuins she)w we‘ll-eicvcloj)cd }iys1e*rie‘al
syn\}>ti>Jus, ai\el in trance* states oT Iwsterical orij.^in the
in(*eliurn is |)re)l)ably he‘l|K‘d a erpcat ele al by an ae‘e*t iituatcd
scnse)ry acuity e)r lie‘i^'hlciK*el pe)wca's of obscrvalion elue to
this fa.e*tor.

To some exte*nt tlu* nt)rmal individtad aKe) e*an achieve
hciglit(‘nc‘el state-s e»r e*euiccniratk)n e‘e>nelue‘ivc te» the increase
of his s(‘nse)ry acuity. If he* r(‘lax(*s his muscle s, Ibr^yds the
we>rlel are)un<l him and fixe s his ininel e>n e)nc task -for e xaniple
the task e)!’ picking up slight inlbrmalive* eaus disseminated
involuntarily by an KSP cxpcrime nle'r e)r a '' te‘l(*pathie ”
a^ent he* will e)ftcn be* able* gre*atlv te) au^mead (hose pe)we:rs
of attcntieiu, discriminatiem. eH>nccntratu)n an.d subtle
rationalisatie)!! uj)e>n wliieh the incrcas(*el e‘nie‘ie*ne‘y e)!’ his
sensory fae'ultie*s ele'i)cnd. Siiedi mcthe)ds brine into e)pe*ratie>n
the full pe)wcrs e)f the* subco?iscious minel undisiracteel by
events in the inimeeliatc eMivirejnment.

Skxsoky Cues

In telepathic anel clairvoyant exhibitions by mceliums,
vaueie^ville telepathists or J^^SP subjects, it is surprising how
much can be inferred from slight cues ])re)vidcd bv invediin-
tary movements anel sounds, bare-ly perceptible ditier(*ntia-
tions of light and shade, changes e)f facial expre*ssioii. innerva¬
tions e)f the ve)eal muscles, tensions e)f the fac'ial and c<*r\ ieal
muscl<*s, alterations in rate, rhythin. time anel evenness of
the breathing, apart from any question e)f s(‘nse>ry hype r-
acuity on tlie part of tlie percipient. With gifteel sub)(‘c*ts
who can use to the full their j)Owers of subc(mse*ie>us assimi¬
lation and ratiocinatie)!!, the ehanees of e*orreetly inter¬
preting such faint cues are greatly iiicreas(*el. The ability
of the subconscious mental proccsse's to utilise* the sliglitest
cue has been she)wn time and again in exi)e*rinH*nts with
hysterics. The powers of lightning calculatie>n pe)ss<‘sse*d
by some infant pre)digies wedl exemplify the potentialities
of subconscious mental operations.

88G

The Psychology of the Occult

The psychical researcher and ESP cxperinieiiter must be
fully cognizant of the diflicultics of excluding sensory cues
before he undertak(‘s any investigations in his chosen sph<T(\
Very seldom, however, have such in\'(‘stigators shown,
judging from their books and reports, that th(\v possess the
reejuisite knowledge ; and it is hard to avoid the conclusion
that the great bulk of the “ successful ” experimental results
reported ar^^ directly attributable to ignorance of th(‘ diffi¬
culties involved.

It is evident from this brief introduction tliat all t(‘l(‘pathy
and clairvoyant investigations should be (‘arri(^d out under
such conditions as to leave not the slightest doubt as to the
complete physical impossibility of sensory cues being gained
by the pereij)ient. The vast majority of ESP tests do not
observe this condition. If the possibility of subconsciously-
motivated scoring errors, fraud and tlu^ like are ex(‘lud(‘d,
the relatively small amount of (!xtra-(!hanct‘ successes
achieved by the averagely successful ESP p(T(*ipient in reason¬
ably well controlled zener-card experinuids may well repre¬
sent the degree to which tlu' occasional sensory cue has been
unconsciously disseminated, observed and interpreted -
perhaps once or twice in every hundred or so guesses.

Where constant and slight enneurosis (innervation) of the
vocal muscles on the part of a telepathi(‘ ag(*nt is the only
source of the sensory cues, the average percipient will be
lucky—if tlie distance is over a yard or two—to catch more
than an occasional indication of the nature' of the card the
agent is looking at; and only a percipient with very .acute
hearing will be able to register them to any marked extent.
This is undoubtedly the main explanation of Dr. S. G. SoaPs
amazing experiments, although one curious feature of these
experiments demands something more than simple explana¬
tion on these lines. Yet Dr. Soal’s experiments, it may be
noted in passing, do not exclude an exj)lanation in terms of
the operation of sensory cues, as will be seen in a later
chapter.

To render the operation of sensory cues totally out of the
question in ESP experiments, recourse? should be had to a
lightproof and soundproof cabinet in which to seat the
percipient; or alternatively he must be placed at such a
distance from the agent that all physical means of communi-

Sknsory Cuks

387

cation between them would be a literal impossibility. Such
a cabinet has not been usc^d by ESP experimenters, and
although a fair number of distance experiments have been
carried out few will claim that such experime^nts i)rescnt
cogent evidence for the operation of t(‘lepathy or clairvoyance.

Even in clairvoyancti (as oppos(Ml to telepathy) experi¬
ments the situation is not so simple as might at first appear.
For example, the percipient may be required to guess the
order of a pack of cards enclosed in a locked metal box. Yet
the precaution of a locked metal box would not in itself be
enough. The person who places the pack in the box must
also b(* prevented from either seeing or conv^ersing with any
person who is going to make (*ontaet with the ptTcipient
(after the (?ards are in the box) either btfore or during the
experiment. In other words th(‘ person who places th(‘ c^ards
in the lx)x must be allow(‘d no subs(‘((u(‘nt contact with any¬
one who is involved in the experiment until after the cards
have been checked. This precaution has sc^ldom been taken.
Chowrin’s experiments in hysterical hyperacuity of the
senses suggest only too clearly the possibility that the super¬
visor of tlie experiment may unconsciously gain cues at
second or third hand through the nu'dium of involuntary
articulation and convey them to the p(‘r(‘ipient by the same
means.

The well-publicised experiments of Rhine and other
American ESP experimenters must be rejected on collateral
evideiure of bias and tendentiousness as judged from the
presentation of their reports. Even so, the great majority
of their clairvoyant experiments are indictable on grounds
of insulTicient precautions against th(‘ s(‘nsory cues. For
example, an apparently excellent series of clairvoyant
experiments carried out by Pratt and Woodruff at Duke
University " were designed to demonstrate the influence of
novelty in the target material. The actual report of the
experiments is of a high standard and triple score-records were
made. In these experiments a total of 66 subjects w’^ere
tested. The number of card guesses involved was 97,000.
The technique generally used was screened touch-rrmtehing
with modifications.

Size of Stimtilm Symbols in Extra-Smsory Perception^ J. Panipsycliol.,
Ill, 19:19, pp. 121-157.

388

Tiik PsYrnoLO(;v of the Occt^lt

There were* two main s(*ries of ('xperini(‘nts. In the
larger B series the results of over ()(),()()() guesses produeed a
relatively low eritieal ratio of 4.99. Series A, wliieh were
eondueted under less well eontrolled eonditions, showed a
eorrespondingly higher (Titieal ratio of (5.28, whieliis preeisely
what might be exp(‘et(‘d if lli(‘ seoriug sueeess(^s were du<‘
solely to the intervention of sensory cues. Alternative
theorie s to (xplain the greater sueeess of the l(‘ss w(‘ll eoji-
trolled series can be eonsidered only wlien it has been [)rov(‘d
that the intervention of sensory cues was not only improbable
but impossible. Analysis of the seneaied toueh-mat(‘hing
method, however, renders this oid of the (piestion.

That (50 subjeets should show, en )nass(% strong evideaiee of

extra-sensory ” pereeption is so contrary to what oIIkt
ESP experinuaiters have found, particularly Soal, that tin*
results are in thcmseivc's automatically sus]K‘et. When we
hear that the sen^med toueh-matehing te(*hnique involv(‘s
the personal handling of a fae(i-down pa(‘k of (‘ards by the
experimenter who is sitting only a eouj)lc of fert away from
the percipient, the claim to have imposed tlu‘ strictest
experimental controls must raise a smile.

The only value of a screen betwcnai the {)er(;ipient and the
experimenter is that it probably prevents direcd visual eut^s
from reaching the i)ercipient. If, in the absc^nce* of a serec^n,
the possibility of direct visual cues r(‘aching tin* pcrcipiejit
is admitted, then plainly the same possibility exists in regard
to the exj)erimenter ; for lie (;an not only see the backs of the
cards but he can also touch the backs of the cards and
probably the faces as well. Any information he may g(*t
from the cards, pprliaps subconsciously, may be r^‘adiIy
transmitted by unconscious articulation or endophasic
enneurosis, by an auditory code of ideomotor movements,
by intonations and variations in thv breathing, or by involun¬
tary reactions to any tentative movements of the percipient's
pointer over the exposed “ key-cards Both series of the
Pratt-Woodrulf experiments arc potentially open to an
interpretation on these lines.

In the conscious or unconscious detection of slight sensory
cues a certain degree of mental alertness is essential. Where
boredom intcTvenes, the subject’s alertness drops. Novelty
or other aids to re-engage the interest will naturally revive

Sensory Cues

38f>

tlie qui-vive of tlie subject and prevent staleness. This is all
that Pratt and Woodruff appear to have established -not,
as Dr. J. B. Rhine hints, something bearing on tlu^ ‘‘ laws ”
of extra-sensory pereeption.

The sh(^i i comings of the screenc^d touch-matching tech-
niiiue are (juite obvious. Yet of these Pratt-Woodruff
exi)eriments Rhine has written : “ For sheer top-heaviness
of safeguarding measures. prol)ably no comparable experi¬
ment lias ever been eondueled.” “

TIi(‘ claim to have establisJied by such experiments the
exist(‘nec of a new causal priiunple unknown to modern
science is, of course, ludicrous. To j)rove such claims the
crit(Tia of the twact sciences must be rigidly adhered to ; they
arc tli(‘ only ones which could satisfy the scientific^ workl,
and this is wliat all psychical resc^ar(*hers and ESP experi¬
menters fail to recognises Rhinc^’s comment on the Pratt-
Woodruff expe^riments is u good illustration of the occult
researcdicT’s fallacious outlook.

There are sex eral different ways in whicdi the pc^rcipient
may gain the requisite sensory cu(\s during clairvoyanc'c or
tel(‘pat)iy experimciits. First, there is the straightforward
possibility of dirc‘ct vision —the pereijiient being able to see
the card or objc^ct to be guessed or to infer their nature by
slight visual cues. Another possible source of information
is through the sense of touch. Allied to this is the faculty
we possess of detecting differences in tlie weights of objects ;
this, and the use of thc‘ sc^nse of smell, may be of somt' value
to the* medium or clairvoyant, although in the average zener-
card experiment they can be discounted.

The scaise of hearing is the chief means by which informative
cues are conveyed to the ESP percipient ; and directly
connected witli this is the wdiolc problem of unconscious
movements and endophasic enneurosis on the part of the
agent or experimenter, and the conscious or unconscious
detection and interpretation of the rc'sultant sounds by the
percipient. Obviously, both the dissemination and reception
of such sensory cues can be a conscious, and even a deliberate
business; but in the following pages we shall concern
ourselves mainly with the more interesting unconscious
variety.

• Thi liench of the Mindy 1947, p. 37.

390

Thk Psychology of tiik Ocxuj/r

Unconscious movements by the telepathic agent may not
only be seen—they may be heard by the percipient; or, if
they are in contact, they may be felt. In modern ESP
ex})erinu?nts, however, the latter possibility seldom occurs,
although in Abramowski’s long series of telepathic experi¬
ments already referred to, detection of the agent’s unconscious
movements occurred mainly through the sense of toucli—
the percipient holding the agent’s hand.

It would seem a very simple matter in ESP experiments
to exclude the possibility of the percipient obtaining informa¬
tion by the direct use of the sense of sight. Yet in Rhim^'s
early zener-eard experiments, as was subsequently shown,
it was often (juitc easy to detect the symbol on the card-face
from the back when viewed from certain angles. The sym¬
bols printed on the front of the cards had be<^n impressed too
hard, rendering their outlines discernible on the reverse
sides. That Dr. Rhine should have published the r(‘sults
of such experiments in the first instance as evidence of tele-
pathy or clairvoyance is almost incredible. Nothing can
dispel the impression of carelessness thus cn atc'd, wliich the
partisan tendentiousness of subsequent reports and books
has done little to dispel. Yet it is Dr. Rhine himst‘lf who,
more than any other ESP experimenter, upbraids th(‘ world
of science for not having the breadth of outlook to admit the

fact ” of extra-s(msory perception !

In these early card-guessing trials the pcTcipient was
generally allowed to sc(‘ the backs of the cards, and even to
handle them. The possibility of obtaining visual and tactile
cues by such nutans—apart from the question of the symbols
show’ing through the backs- is evident. Any card can be
identifi(?d visually from its back once the ])crcipicnt has had
a chance to see the front. It is similarly possible to identify
a card by touch through noting small irregularities on the
back or edges.

Reflections, of course, arc easily guarded against if the
proper precautions are taken. But the test-table is not the
only possible source of reflections. Slight variations in
reflected light and shade, even on relatively poor reflecting
surfaces, may be sufficient to provide the necessary cue when
the percipient has only a limited number of symbols to guess
from, each w'ith its characteristic shape. There is always

Sensory Cues

891

the very iinportaiil possibility, too, tliat tlu‘ test supervisor
or one of liis assistants may eateh some visual eue and pass it
on uneonseiously to the percipient.

Tlie question of the unconscious (iissemination of sensory
eiK‘s by telepathic agents will be dealt with at length later.
Meanwhile we may note that in clairvoyance tests, where there
is no ostensible agent, the supervisor, his assistant, or an
observer niay unconsciously ])rovide cues to th(* {x-rcipient
when the conditions of the expcrinuMit allow the cards to be
seen or touched by them, as has been the case in a great many
of the American clairvoyance experiments.

Tlic sense of touch is capable* of great d(*velopnient beyond
the normal d(‘gr(‘(* of sensitiveness. It is in fact possible for
some people to d(‘signate corr<*c11y, by touch aloiu*. the name
of most cards in the* pack, using tlie average comnicnnal
l)raiKl of playing-cards. Among the blind ta(*tilc sensitivity
is sometimes remarkably dcvcloj)ed. For exanij)le. Professor
Villcy records that the hyperaphia. or extrenu* tactile scaisi-
tivity, of some blind wom(*n enables them to distinguish the
dillcrcnt colours of the wool they arc* using through the* effect
j)roduced on th(‘ wool by the dy<‘; while Professor l^ontan
once reported a case of hystcro-epilc])sy in which the patient
could discriminate between variously colourcxl wools in
complete* darkness by virtue of her incr(*ase(l tactile respon-
sivcn(*ss. IlyjKTacuity of the senses, as we have already
seen, may be* occasioned by hysteria or hypnosis.

Despite some extraordinary feats of the tactile sense by a
few individuals, there is no basis whatever in the claims once
made by tlie rcnow^jicd French writer, .Jules llomains, that
there exists any such faculty as “ FiXtra-Petifial \ ision or
the ‘‘ Paroptic Sense* Komains, in his book Eyeless Sight,
describes how he made numerous experiments early on in
liis career regarding a hypothetical sensory function analogous
to sight but operating via the* medium of the siibjcct s skin.
Folours and letters coi.ld thus, aceonling to Komains, be
identified at a distance. Furthermore, hr claimed that
the “ paroptic p(*r<’(‘ption of colours continues noticeably
beyond the lowest illumination with which visual pcrc('ptio]i
of colours can occur This, oddly enougli, is precisely
wliat Cliowrin claimed to have found years previously in his

Thk PsYnioLOc’.Y or tiik Oc’cm/r

experiinonts witli a IiystcricHl subject. * Bui these hiiitastie
results of Bouiaiiis and Chowrin \vert‘ quite eertainly due to
uneonseiously artieulated (‘ues against wliieh lu'itlier experi¬
menter s('(*ins to liaY(‘ taken any {)reeaulions at all.

The \vhole of Uoniain’s book Eijelrss Sight is an exec'llent
illustration of the deon^e in whieh s('lf-de(*(q)tion may oeeur
wh(‘n there is eonijd(‘t<' i^noraiiee of such }>syeholoeicat
j)rineiples as the involiifitarv and uiieofiseious dissc ininalion
of st'iisory cues. I1ie di-tailed telepathic experiments of the
Polish j)syeholoi>ist Abrainovvski is another ease in ))oint. “

Dr. Soal's inv(*sti^ation of the vauch'ville telepathist
“Marion ^vas a ^ood d(‘monstratio]i of liow llie praetis('<l
individual can det<‘et a playing-card blindfold or in (he dark
one(‘ he has had an o])])orlunity to tom*h it bi forehand :
“ ^Marioii displaxad ^reat a]>titud(‘ for re(*ot»nisin^ a playing*
card (hat he liad onet* touched when lliis card was mixed
with sev('ral (dlur cards of similar make* and ])attern.*' “
Marion usually did tl)is by impartitie- a slinht bend to th("
card in (juestion ,whieh li(‘ was al)I(‘ to (h tiet when he latiT
went throui'li the pack to locate* it. lie* could also ideaitify
in tli(* dark, stilf milllKaird cards, whieh lie Iiad pr(‘\ iously
been allowed to hold, by means of his sensitive touch alone.
Jhjt, report(‘d Dr. Soal, “ wh(*n tactual and visual eu(\s are
(‘ompKtely ruled out Marion suee(*eds no more often than
chance would prc'dicd The skill needed to memorise and
det(‘el slight irref>u lari ties in a stilf card is, in Marion's ease*,
acquired throu<^li years of practise*. It can not, he)W(‘ve‘r, be*
ruled e)ut that sj)e*eijdly gift(‘(l inelividuals are able* to elo this
spontane-ously and e‘ven uneonseieiusly.

The* UK'ans useel by Marie)!! te) elete*e*t eareis e*anne)t be
directly applie*d to the? usual type of KSP e‘Xj)eri!n(*nt, except
perhaps where the p(*reij)ient -or any other pcTson present
during the* e xperiment whe) remains within visual and audi¬
tory ranjve e)f the ))ereipient- has had an o])portimity e)f see¬
ing or he)lding the pack of cards used during, or pra ious to^
the ex])eriment. This, however, has veTy ofte n happeme^d :

^ A. X., A Hare Form of Iltfpcracsthesia of thv Hitter Srosc-

()rf(ans, (’(>nttit>ut7ons to Xcuropsyc'hic Medicine. Moscow, 1898.

* See Ja‘ Siihconscirot Sorinat.

* S<Kil, S. (i., Prefiminart/ Stnftirs of a Vamhviile Tvlepnlhiat^ I'iiivcrsity

of Lond(»n (!oi?ncit for INycIneal Investigation, Ilnllelin III, 10:57.

Tr.MirATHY AND Idkomotor Movements

tlu‘ contingency is fio^rravated when a particular pack has
been used in more than one experiment. J)r. Soal. himself
a firm believ(T ifi telcpatliy, points out in his report that these
cxpcriuKaits with Marion “ suggest a most serious source of
error in a. great many of the card-guessing tests d(\scribed })y
Miss Ina Jcplison and Dr. .1. H. Rhine.’’ ‘

Another souret* of sensory cues in Rhine’s earlier experi¬
ments has already b(‘i‘ii referr(‘d to : naiiu^ly, that the impress
of th(' symbol on the face of th(‘ card was often visible from
the back when held at certain angles. In these experiments
the idcaitity of such cards could (‘l(‘arly hav(! been revealed
by th(' s(‘iisc of touch alone, if the ])ereipient was allowed to
haiidU' them, which in many eases h(‘ was.

In \ i(AV of tlie great unecTtainty involved in allowing the
j)creipi(‘nt to handle th(* cards, it musi be accepted as a
cardinal principh* in all ESP exjKTiments that the yK*r<apient
be allovv(*d no possible* chance of touching them. Y(‘t even
if the |)(Tcipi<‘nt is (‘ifcetiv(*ly prcv(‘nted from receiving any
(lind visual or taetih^ clues, the possible^ source's of sensory
cues. a])art from those' already nu'utioncd. are still numerous
' a fact seldom appreciat(‘d l)y ESP ex))(‘rimentcrs.

Tr: 1 iw'i'in* and Idkomoia> a Movi: mj:nts

\V(‘ now come to a range* of psychological phenomena which,
following Tarchanow, we shall classify under the single
heading of Idcitmutor movcmenis. These may be loosely
defined (in tliis context) as sliglit iuvoluutary muscular
actions w^hich are directly attributable to tin* cxistcnct* of a
j)rcvailing idea in the mind. Idroniolor ncthw was a Utiu
originally introduced by Carpenter in 1874 and the concept
was d('veloped by William James as a theory of conation.
Altliough the term luis since been largely dis(*arded by psycho¬
logists, WT shall retain it here, confining it to the sense in
wliich Tarchanow employed it in his study of involuntary
movements in relation to '' thought-reading ”

‘ op. cil., p. DA.

‘ Tarc liaiK)w, J., llyjmotismv^ Sn^estion el Lecture des Peusec^s, Paris,
1801.

394

Thk Psychology of the Occult

Ideomotor actions may result either from (‘onscious ideas,
or from ideas of which the subject is ?iot immediately aware
and which may be called subc*onseious. A distiiu^tion must
be made, however, b('tween ideomotor action and psycho¬
logical automatism. For in the latter the idea whi(‘h })ro-
duees the movenuMit is said to be dissoeiatc'd from the main
stream of eonseiousness of the individual ; this is not
necessarily the ease with ideomotor movements, which are
in fact a natural and constant accompaniment, in one form
or another, of all our mental activity, particularly when the
emotions are in any way aroused.

The two eliief iiivestigah)rs of ideomotor actions in ntation
to the occult W(Te the Russian psycdiologist Tarehanow,
and the w(‘ll known American psyc‘hologist Jastrow. It is
doubtful whether (‘ither had studied the rc'ports of the other
on the relation of ideomotor movements to tc‘lepathy and
mus(‘le-r(‘ading. Rut th(‘y both c*ame to the sam(‘ eonelii-
siofis and arrivcTl at them by using much tlie same methods
—though the Russian psychologist used a rather more
elaborate (‘(piipment and teehnicpie than }iis American
eonfrcTC.

To give an illustration of the operation of id(‘omotor
movements, we can do no better than to d(‘serib(‘ th(‘ main
f(‘atures of Jastrow's apparatus and oiic of the teehnifpies
which he used for studying them.

Sin(*e ordinary ide motor movements are often v(‘rv slight’
Jastrow and Tarcdianow recjuired apparatus of considerable
delic*aey for n^gistering them. Jastrow’s a})j)aratus was
simple : a s(]iiare wooden frame eontain(*d a j)lat(* of glass
upon which were plae(‘d three polish(‘d st(cl balls. These
balls supfiorted another framed j)lat(? of glass. Attached
to the upper frame was a rigid rod which terminated in a
recording ai)j)aratiis. A complete record of every mov(‘nicnt
of the upper glass frame could thus be traced upon sheets of
gla/cd paper by this nutans.

To use this automatograph, or tremogra})h, the subject
places the tips of his fingers upon the glass plate which is
supported by the three ball-bearings. It is virtually im¬
possible to hold the plate still for more than a few seconds,
particularly if a senen rendcTs the subject’s hand invisible
to its owner, lender tliesc conditions the subject is instructed

’Fklkpatiiy and Ideomotor MovkmkxTvS

lo think as little as possible of his hand, and at the same time
to make a reasonal)l(‘ ( flbrt to prevent it from moving.
As long as the subject’s att(‘ntion is not fixed upon anything
in particular, the resulting involuntary shaky movements of
his hand produ(‘e a random meaningless pattern on the
recording apparatus. Hut it the sul)jeet\s attention is
fixed on some objeet in the room, the ])attern ])rod\ie(‘d is
that of an irregular line* wh.os(‘ general direction lies towards
the focus of attention. Again, if tlu^ subject is directed to
count silently the ticks of a metronome, or even merely
to watch its movenu'nts, the re(‘ord shows that, liis hand
moves to and fro- not accurately but in a geiKTal way—in
time with the instrum(‘nt. Tarehanow’s ( xperiuH nts showed
that if his subjects (*one(*ntrated for any lengtli of time upon
an object, the resultant ]>attern showed '‘sometimes the
figure of a scpiarc*, soundimes the tigure of a triangle or a
circle, according to tin* dominant form of the object
With g<‘ometric figures this t(‘ndency was (‘veu more marked.

In one of Jastrow's exjurinn^nts the sui)ject was asked to
concentrate' his attentio?) for thirty-fivt' seconds uj)oii some
patches of (*olour on the wall opposite. Without warning,
the subject was then directed to count the strokes of a
nietrononn' for the same length of lime. The sudden (*haiige
completely altered the style of the ideomotor movements
as r<^V(*al(*d by the automatograj)h.

Jastrow and Tarcduinow both found that unconscious
ideomotor actions manilcsted themsedves in slight movements
of the whole body, generally in the form of an irregular
swaying. Hy fixing the apparatus to the subject’s head th(‘
movements could be recorded. It was found that in regard
to these slight swaying movements tluTC was a general
movement towards any object of attention.

Not everybody show^s the same degree of style of ide omotor
activity ; some ])(*ople show very little, while others (‘an be
extraordinarily responsive. The latter ar(‘ potentially ex¬
cellent agents in certain tyjies of vaudeville tele{)athy ”
exhibitions.

Towards the end of the last c('ntury in Kurope and America,
great interest was arousi'd by the seemingly inexplicable
feats of telepathy performed by professional telepathists
both on the public stage and at private exhibitions. Some

396

The PsYcnoi.cKJY of the OcciH/r

of th(‘ exhibitions were extreiTioly ini})ressiA'(\ but in time the
secret leakcxl out, and those who ki)(*w what was involved
no longer talked about “ thought-reading ” but of inuselc-
reading inst(‘ad. Thought-readers, it was noted, pref<Trcd
to tak(' hold of tlie hand, or place their palm on tlu* forehead
of the i)erson whos(‘ thoughts they wished to read
Alternatively they k(‘pt them w(‘ll withiTi sight. When
either of these conditions was abscnit- unl(‘ss th(‘ thought-
reader attaeli(‘d liinis(‘ll‘ to liis subject, as for example, by
means of a rod or j)ieee of string - iiottiing v(Tv much
oeeurr(‘d.

Now “ inusele-reading is usually a highly skilful business.
It is not limited only to tlie eornn^t interpretation of slight
ideomotor movements, ( lianges in breathing, sliglit Hushing
and tremors, eha?ig(‘s of tension and relaxation, changes of
expression tli(‘s(‘ factors and many others lielp the
museh‘-reader in liis act.

Tlu* traditional inusele-rcading act is v(*ry (l!n(‘n‘nt from,
and r<*latively far simpler tlian, tlu* mod(*rn KSI^ lyi>e of
exj)erini(‘nt. The fornu'r, in point of fact, i‘ eonliiH‘(l to a.
very lirnitt'd kind of j)(‘rformaue(‘ and d( KiLds almost
entirc'ly uptai the imisele-read(*r playing a kind of 'iu>t or
cold ’■ game with his subj(*(*t or with his audi(‘TK‘e.

The old<*r l)rand of nuisele-reader excelled in such j)rol)]ems
as tinding objects lii(ld<‘n about the room or on one among a
numl)(‘r of ])ersons, linding a letter or a word on a ecTtain
])age <»f a book, writing down words or ciphers thought of
by another person, tinding on a piano the notes of wt*ll-knovvn
melodies, identifying playing-cards chosen from a j)aek by
members of the audience, or tinding an object hWldc*!! in one
of a numb(*r of identical V)oxcs. Some of tlu* tricks r(*(piire
greater skill and praetic e than others. The linding of hidden
obj(‘ets in tlu* auditorium of a theatre is relatively simple;
for the uiieonseious reaetioii and the inAa)luntary movements
of the audience often enable the experienced mus(*l(*-reader
to go straight to the place where the object is hidden with
the minimum of hesitation.

On the other hand, su(*h tricks as finding a nK*lody on the
piano take the muscle-reader a longer time and depend on
the skilful use of tentative trials of notes and observing
the reactions of the audience, or on noting tlu*ir reactions

Ti:i.ki*;VTiiy and Idkdmotok Mdvkmknts :iin

as )iis tiii^(Ts }iD\(T Icntntivily ovt r tla* keys. To find a
word iii a. book tlir sarno loiitativc* and tx))loralorv inctliod
is used. Ill both tlirst* ly])(‘s of performance, wliieh naturally
d(*j>end on a limitc'd number of witnesses. 1h(‘ sp(‘etators
must, <»f (‘ourse. be able to wateh vsliat the musele-nader is
doin^-. All such performanees of mus(*le-rea(linn* are mueh
faeilitat(‘d if the muscle-reader holds the hand of tlu^ subjert
whos(‘ thoughts lie is tryino* to “ read ", or t<MK‘h(*s sonu^
part of him ; with lliis aid most of tli(‘ musc'le-reade r s tricks
can e\’en be carried out blind-folrlccl. W ith \ er\ acute
Inarin^ he could undoubU‘dl\ solve* the problems by hearing-
alone. A^ain, some of Tarehanow's e\}H rinu*n1s in musele-
readiiijr W(‘rt‘ ( Ifeeded successfully tlirou^di the miisele'-reader
bein^ eonnea-te-d to his a^e nt by a ediain or a wire after haviiur
bi‘e‘n blindfoleh'd and having had his ears plu^^ire*d !

Jastr<»w sums up thus the m(‘ans \vlu*reby tlie* \auele\ille
t(‘lej)athist solve-s his f)re)blems : ‘‘ In the* exhibitie)ns e»f

musele-readinj^, the ehangr(‘s in breathing, the llushinj^, the
tremor of th(‘ subject wluai the reader ajijiroaehes the hiding
place, and tlie relative rilaxation when he* is on tJie wremg
scent, serve as valuable clues ; to borrow the a[)t expre'ssion
of “ hide and seek th(‘ {lerformer grows liot and cold
with his subject. Tlien, too. the te ntative exeairsions in one
direction and another, to determine in wliicli the subject
follows wdth least resistance, presiait another variation of
the same process. The liushed calm of the audience when
suc(‘ess is near, the restlessness and whispering during a
false scent, arc cipially wa*lcome suggestions wdiich a el(‘V(‘r
performer utilizes, ther<*by adding to the cVlat of his exhibi¬
tion. . . . When a combination of numb(‘rs or of letters in a
w^ord is to b(' gu(‘ssed, tlu* operator pass(‘s over witli th(‘ sub¬
ject the several digits or the al])habet, and notes at which
the tell-tale tremor or mark of exciteiiKiit occurs, and so
again piTforms the feat on the basis of the involuntary
contractions that express the slight(‘st ehang(‘s of attention
or interest w hen tlu‘ correct number or letter is indicated.”'

Many spiritualistic mediums use the method of muscle-
reading ” to gain th(‘ir information. They talk, often at
random, throwing out tentative suggestions, words, places,

* Fact and Fable in Psychologyy p. 334.

398

The Psychology of thk Occui/r

names and tlic rest and noting the reactions of their “ sitters”.
With an ouija-board some American mediums have, in the
past, acquired an uncanny skill in interpreting the slight
hesitations and ideomotor moveim'iits of their clients.
Jung himself has investigated this aspect of the subject.*

One trick reported in connection with muscle-n'aders is
that of r(‘produ(*ing a line drawing of some object or figure
held in tlu* hand of tlie agent. The tentat ive strokes of the
pencil and the })resence or absence^ of incipient success in
what is being drawn produce slight but perceptible* involun¬
tary reactions in tiu* agent ; whereby the percipient may
gauge tlu‘ failure or success of his drawing as it d(‘velops
b(‘fore the agent's eyes.

In most, cases muscl(‘-read(TS det(*ct their agents' involun¬
tary r(‘actions by watching them, i.c. by tlu* sense of sight.
The main (exception to this is when the muscle-reader is
toucliing the person of the agent or is connected to him in
scjiiie way—su(*h as by a rod or piece of string. In Soal’s
investigation of the vaudcville-tel(‘pathist Marion it became
clear that Marion confined liis obsiTvations in the main to
watching the agent’s face and h(*ad. Wlien the agent’s
body was hidden by a screen, Marion was still able to locate*
hidd(‘n objects, to id(‘ntify playing cards chosen by the
agent from among a number of others, and to carry out other
(‘xhibitions of “ psychometry ” and '' telepathy Once
th(‘ ag(*nt’s face was covered, howcvcT, Marion was helpless.

An important (juestion arises as to whether muscle-
readers are always aware of the method th(*y themselves use
to carry out their feats of “telepathy”. In Marion’s case
Dr. Soal r(*ports that h(? quite genuinely believes that he
does it by telepathy. It is probable, writes Soal “ that
after years of practice, the reading of wdicia has become a
subconscious mental process which Marion is entirely unable
to analyse

Unconscious observation and interpretation of sensory
cues can be a very deceptive phenomenon, and there is no
long(*r the least shadow of doubt tliat it occurs with many
ESP percipients. It is deceptive in that the percipient him-

■ See ('oUected Papers on Anahjtical Pspchology^ 1020.

■ Preliminary Slu/lies of a Vaudeville Telepathist^ p. 30.

IdKOMOTOK MoVKMKNTS AXl) KSP Tksts

self, with his jiiiiid i!ni)r(‘gnfitrd by notions of tolopathy and
other oecult idr*as, eannot reeo|rnise the true cause* of his
success in such cxperirru'nts, and finels in th(*se su(rcess(*s
false confirmation of his own irrational l)(*liefs. That cues
can be j^ained a7»d utilis(*d without tlie conscious awareiiess
of the* individual is well cx(‘inplitie(l ])y the unexpected
results of Jastrow’s i xjKTinu'nts with an (*lectro-maynet/

iDKOMfrroR Movkmknts AM) KSP Tksts

^Vhile the traditional inusele-rcadeT probably shares to
some extent with the KSP pereipii*nt the faeully of notiujf(
and interpretino* involunte.rily-^iv(‘n e lm s without conscious
awar(‘n(‘ss, the* traditional mus(*le*readinfT a(*l has little*
eomiee*tion with the* moelern ty])e of KSP expe*rinu‘nt. The
nK‘tlie)els e)f muse*le-re*aelers have be*e*n menti()ne‘el in se)mc
eletail because by no means all KSP t‘\perime:nle*rs a])pe*ar to
be* aware e)f th(*m, and they iuelic*ate ve ry clearly the* type of
expe‘rimeiit which any belicveT in extra-sensory ]>e‘r(*e‘ptie)n
must avoid if he wishes te) have* his results taken at all
seriously.

The modern type of KSP experiment ^jfenerally consists
in the j)erci])ient guessing the* eirder of a pack of ‘25 cards
ceuitaining five symbols- star, waves, e*ire*le, e*ross anel rec¬
tangle. He cannot make tentative e*alls te> test e)ut the
involuntary reactions e)f the agent, the super\ ise r, or any one
else who is cognizant by accident e>r de sign of the e)rel(*r of
the cards, although in some type*s of experiment ex¬

ploratory mov('m(*nts of a pe)inter could bring about the
same result. This would tlu'refore aj)})ear almost to rule
out the possibility of any form of muscle*-reading in the
majority of KSP tests, fe)r eve*n if the* percipient were* able
to si*e or hear any involuntary moveme*nts he wT>uld have
dillicTilty in identifying theTU with any partieular symbol.
Yet th(*re is one possibility, which w^e shall now' j)roce*(*d to
discuss.

As will be s(*en in the next chapter, the Danish experi¬
menters Lehmann and Hansen noted that the (*onceutration
for any length of time on a word tends to produ(*e an innerva-

« See p. 418~t2().

400

The PsYCHoixxiY ok the Occn/r

tion or etuirurosis of the vocal muscles, corr('sj)on(lin|^ to a
ruclimcutarv or incipient form of articulation. Tlicy
concliulcd that alterations in tlie tone of breathing l)rouj^dit
about l>v sucli a muscular innervation was sufliciiait to
provide tlie j)ereipient with rcquisii(‘ clues as to the nature
of tlu* w(»rd in qu(‘stion provid(‘d that the j)ereipicnt had a
limited number of words from which to ^uess.

Such ideomotor reactions more pro]K*rly jxTtain to tlx*
subje(‘t of involuntary articulation, but they ar(‘ nu^ntioned
here l)eeause tJuv form a hc'lpful link betwe(‘n involuntary
artieulati(Ui prop(*r and simple ideomotor reactions. Th(\v
fui’tluT jxnnt to tlu* possibility of a code l)(‘iii<»’ de\e!o])(‘il
from spontaiK'ons id(*omotor movc inents of the lips, toiij^iu'
and throat mnsek's. In this connection it is interesting to
not(‘ a conclusion of Tar<*hano\v\s : that after (‘onstant
repetition as, for exam})l(‘. in a situation provided t)y KSP
tyj)es of experiment a particular pattern of ideomotor
movements of the li|)s and tongue teMids to beeonu* assoeiatcMl
with particular words or their corresponding menial images,
unless tlu* attention is directed towards th(‘ir suppression.

That a particular pattern of ideomotor movements of the
lips and longiic, may, after constant repetition, become
associated witii a particular word, appears to be of great
rele\anee to the standard ESP type of experiment; for here
the telejmthie agent is trying io “ transmit ” mentally a
continual and random succession of only live symbols,
tdcarly the constant repetition of the five symbols by the
agent ideally fulfils Tarehanow’s condition. In many ESP
ex[)eriments the agent does not “ eoneeidratc ” on each
symbol as it appears but merely gives it a glance without
involving the least conscious cllbrt. It is perhaps significant
that Tarchanow did not merely confine the pattern of ideo¬
motor movements to words only, but also to their corres¬
ponding mental images : i.e. the mere sight of an object
or its mere mental representation may lead after constant
repetition to a consistent pattern of slight ideomotor move¬
ments of the lips and tongue. Such a pattern can be regarded
as something in the nature of a code—each symbol posstjssing
its own particular pattern of movements.

Soal himself appears to have envisaged approximately

Idkomotoh Movkmknts and ESP 'Pmsts ioi

th(‘ sain(‘ i(l(‘a ; \\\ n to ESP cxjHTiiiK'Uts he

eornnu'nts :

\(» such experiments can la* ^'onsirlered ol'any crucial iinportance
if the |)ercipi(‘nt is al)lc sec any ])art of the ai^cnl's l)ody. ^Vhere
tht* j)erci})ient has only a small mirnhcr (a or (>) tii»nres from which to
mak(‘ his choice, the |»ossihility of visual codes rldhoralffl nHransriously
wJn n llic same auent and percipient work tooctla r c>ver any co?isi<tcr-
ahlc p(‘riod of time is too patent to he overlookeci." ^

ri)fortiiiiat(^ly Sr)Ml IlirouglHuit most of liis own cxjKTi-
ni(‘nts has almost inxariahly overlooked the possibility of
such ;i codi' hein<T traiismitt(*d auditorily to the p(Tei[)ienl by
iiK'ans of sounds whieli the supcTvisino ( xpe rimente rs fail to
j)ereeiv<- or nrof^nisr ; tlu‘ eas(‘ of Ilo-i K.. wliieh will Ih‘
discussed in tlctail further f>n, lends furtluT empliasis to this
j)ossil)ility. Variations in tludoiie or e\ (ana ssof th(‘ l)rcathing
arc all that would be required. Soaks precautions w'otild
serve only to obviate visual cues afforded by a code derived
from ideoitiotor hand-movements, limb or body movements,
rnovenuaits or expressions of the fact*, and idt^omotor move¬
ments of the larynx, lips and tongue other than a(*tual
involuntary articailalion.

It may be ohjeeded that any su(*h vismd or auditory codes.
whetluT (‘laborated inieonseiously *' or arrived at fortu¬
itously (as Tarehaiiow has suggested) through the mori‘
primitive meaiis of involuntary ideomotor movements, can
only operate in ESP tests provided that one condition is
fulfilled : viz. jiroviiled that the percipient has at some time
gaiiK'd the chance of s(*(*ing each type' of card at the same
time as the agent made the particular jiatlern of movements
or sounds eonueeted with it. so that the percipient (*an
identify the diffenait code movements or sounds which
pertain to each card symbol.

There an* several ways by which tlu' j)ereipient might
learn the eorrespondenee of tlu* cards with the ideomotor
code. Occasional cudophasic articulation might provide
him with the necessary cues. An alternative has lu'cu
pointed out by the Polish experimenter Abramowski.
Abramowski, although convinced of the fact '' of tc'l('pathy,
did not deny that unconsciously given cues played a eon-

‘ Preliminary Studies of a VaudeviUe Telepathist^ p. 33.

40*2 The Psychology of thk 0(X"Ult

^jiderablc part in his cxperiiinids, notably through the
sense* of touch. Ihiconscious muscular movements by the
agent, he explained, can })rovide the pereipieni with good
elues as to the identity of the words to be guessed, by in¬
dicating either the number of syllabl(‘s in the word, the
rhythm of the word, or the acet'iit on the syllable's. Hut
sueh moveine'iits alse) oiler the* {)Ossil)ility of being se en or
as well as being fe lt, anel if ide'onie)tor moverne'iits are' to be
“ uneeuisciously elaborate'd into some* kind of a (*ode then
it is extreincly like ly that this e*ode would arise spejutaneously
through the natural rhythms and accentuations associated
with normal articulation. Any sueh code would stand a
very good ehane e of being interpreted very rapidly by the
conelitions of the ESI^ tests where only five symbols are
used. This is only possible in case s wlu're the* percipie'iit has
to guess a weml from among a limite d numbei', as was actu¬
ally the ease' in Abramowski's experijiients.

Thc're are, naturally, many limitations te> any theory of
the transmission of se'nsory eme's solely by this method
under the conditions e)f modern ESP experiments. Rut
sometimes, certainly, it may play a big role in helping the
percipient to interpret any code based on an individual
patte'rn of ideomotor movements for each particular word,
syrnbe)!, object or ])ieture iji constant use during an experb
menl.

ESP experimenters should not forget that where the
experimental conditions permit the possibility of a person
other than the agent touching or seeing the cards- as often
occurs, for example, in clairvoyant experiments—it is also
possible, apart from any question of unconscious articulation
that information concerning their order may be conveyed to
the percij)i(‘nt, tlirough hearing or sight, by iuvoluntarj"
movements or a rough ideomotor code.

It is interesting to note that over forty years ago, North-
cot(' Thomas, suggested another source of sensory cues. He
attributed many of his own successful results in telepathy
tests to the percipient’s keen hearing and his ability to
interpret the noise of the scorer’s pencil on the score-sheet,
as the latter wrote down the initial letter of each card for
the purpose of subsequent checking. “ It is clearly no far-

Idkomotok Movkmkn'ts Axr) ESP Tksts

403

fetched hypothesis tfiat the car could dc'tcct and interpret
the difference of the sound of the pencil accordinpf to the
name of the suit that was being written.” ‘

Where the {)ereipient gains his cues through variations
in the agent’s breathing, we are not, properly speaking,
jiislilied in differentiating the process from what wt; have
called “ unconscious articulation a subject whieli will b('
discussed in considerable detail in tlu* next chapter,

* Thought Trani^eretice, UKW.

('hafiter Tu'eaty-fii'e

iM oiA STJNY \\njsri:in\(r^ ja 7 >
AUDITORY ilYriUIACUITY

K iiAVK Jissr s(‘(n that oik‘ of TarchanDW s fonc-liisioiis
was that after (‘onstaiit repetition a partieailar pattern of
ideomotor moNenients of the lips and ton^m* may he(‘omo
assoeiatc'd with a particular word or its eorr<‘S})ondin^ imaital
inia^(‘. We now (*ome to another form of involuntary
activity on tin* })arl e)f the ‘‘ tel(*pat}iie *’ a^ent that of
rudirmidary <»r inei})i(‘nt articulation sometimes ref(Tred
to as “ involuntary whisperiii^ Museh' readin^^ provides
an exeellead illustration <d‘ the view that all thought, is, in
Jastn»vv's words, mon- or l(\ss sue(‘(‘ssfully sup])resscd
action ; that “ tlie ttaideaiey of tliou^ht to iiial an outlet
in t lu* muscles is inherent in tlu^ act ioii of the lu rvous system'’.
'J his prineijdc' a])])lies n<» k*ss to llu- museU s eoniu'cted with
thc‘ mechanism of speeeli than to (diier parts of the body.

The subject of “ in\ ohmtar\ whis])erin^ lias bee n almost
entirely ncj^leeted by ])sy<*hieal nsearehers since* tlu* b(‘-
ginnin^ of tlic century. \’et it is undoid)tedly a fact tliat
unconscious articulation })lays a very large role in the
eommunicalion of eu(*s during KSP tc*sts.

The first serious experiments in connection with
unconscious articulation were earri(*d out by Lehmann and
Hans(‘n. Tlicse w^ere instigated in th(‘ first instam'C as a
result of the (‘X])crinients of Professor II. Sidgw'iek of Cam¬
bridge University which, he claimed, conclusively established
the existence of telepathy. The Danish experimenters
desired to find out whether or not the apj)arent telepathic
effect could be magnified by artificial means. Accordingly,

404

“ InVOM NTAKV WlflSPKRIXC ''

405

tliry placed two c*om(*h\'(‘ spluTiefil inirrors oppositt^ each
other, the distalie(* between their rispeetive foei being two
metres. The experim(‘nt(Ts sat down back to t)aek with
their h(*ads opj)osite th(‘ Ideal ]>oinl of (*aeli mirror. They
tri(*d to transmit, telepatliieally. numbers ranging from
10 to 00, whieli wvvv wntt(*n on counters and tak(*n out of
a bag haphazardly by tlie agent.

During the experiTuents it was sr)on obser\(fi that there
existed a strong Ic ndenev t(» ( uneurosis of llu* vocal muscles
after a jiartieular number liad Ixen thought of for some
time. In ord(‘r, then tdre, to eonvdnee themsc'lves that the
h(‘aring of semi-artieulated words tiad not Ixren rc^sponsible
for the results, the agent placed liis mouth, and tlu* ]>(‘r-
cipient his ear. at tlu‘ resp(‘elive foeus of ea(‘li mirror, while
the former allowcul frc‘(* play to the* hitherto restrain(‘d
vocal movemcaits. At the sanu‘ tim(‘ h(* took care to keej>
his numtli closed and his lijjs from mo\ ing. ruder these
conditions tlie (‘xpcTiiiunters soon bfcauu^ convinc(‘d that
rudimentary vocalisation had been rtsponsibh' for P^>f(^ssor
Sidgwick's ''tel(‘pathie *’ (*ncet. Out of 500 such tests, in
the (*oursi‘ of which each of the <‘Xperimenters took his
turn acting as agent and pcTcipient, .‘18/2 per (*e,nt of the
miml)ers wer(‘ transmitte'd correctly, 41/2 per cent were so
far correct that one of the figures was right, wliile only
‘25.0 per cent W(Te totally incorrect.

Some of the (‘xperimenters* lindings were open to criti¬
cism, but e\en I’rofessor Sidgwick held that they had proved
lli(‘ir main contention :

“That is, tlirv luive certainly provtU t*\|)»‘rinuiitallv what, in
our (iisf'iissioii wv could <»ulv surmise as possible liiat a number of
two (iigits may he eommunieated tnaii a.u(‘nt !(► p(‘reipieiit. by faint
whispt'riiig with closed li}>s, so that a bystander in a sliL»htJy less
favoural)le fiosition for hearing than the pt‘n‘ipi(‘nl would hear no
sound and probably (»bserve no external signs of movement of the
organs of speech.’" ^

In Professor Sidgwiek’s original t(‘lepatliy exj)(Tmients the
percipients had been liypnotiscd. \Ve have already seen
that an inereasi* iit the acuity of one or more of the senses
t)ften a(‘<*ompani(‘s certain hysterical and h> pnotie states.

‘ Sidgwick, IF., iHvohtntnrif }yhisprrin^, Proiv S.lMt., ISaT, ]). ‘ihS.

406

Tin: PSYCIIOl.OGY OF THE OrCULT

The coHcave mirrors in the (experiments of Lehmann and
Hansen were reasonably h<‘ld to net as an artificial substitute
for any such auditory hyperacuity or hyperacusia. and pro¬
vided they could ( staiilish the fact tliat nninlxTs may be
communicated with a fair deffree of succ^ess by m(‘ans
imperc(‘ptib]c‘ to a bystander, the (experimenters wen' well
on their way to establishing their tlwory of involuntary
articnilation as an explanation of Proh'ssor Sidgwiek’s
experiments.

They had stated, in their n'port, that no move'inents of
the lips were visible, and a bystandcT (ould not hear any
sounds Accordingly, Prof(‘ssor Sidgwiek, omitting the
concave mirrors but with the distance b(‘twT'(‘n agent aud
percipient considerably n'diuvd, carried out sonu' experi¬
ments of his own to establish tlu'se points. He nports :

‘‘ I found t!mt it was quite |)ossil)le for iin ot)scrver, fixing his jjjuze
on the ageuit's nioatli, neither to hear nor sei‘ any sign of a wJiis)>er
at a distance of two feel from the agc'iit, while the ])er(‘ipitrnt, at a
distance wliich ^’arit*d, l)ut was ultirimi.cly extc‘nded to 18 inches -
measured from the agent's mouth to the pen'ipic'nt’s ear - heard with
sullicient distiiKitness to attain a eousiderahle amount of su(*(?ess in
guessing." •

The only criticism against the theory of involuntary
whispering so far as these exjMTiinents wen^ concerned was
that the whisjx'ring was not involuntary. Hut this criti¬
cism is of littk' importance. One of the main pinnls of the
(experiments was that tlu' Danish experimenters had found
in their earlier tests a strong tendency to innervation of the
vocal muscles when a jmrticular number was thought of for
any length of tinu'. Sueli movi'monts of tlu* vocal apparatus
ar(‘ a pcTpctual accompainmcnt to our thinking, a fact which
has led many Ih'haviourists to postulate all thinking as
“ silent speech They may (*asiiy b(‘ dehx'tc'd by the use
of a laryngograph, an instrument which re(!ords movements
of th(' larynx and which is often us('d in empirical investiga¬
tion of behaviourist theories of couseiousness. The He-
haviourists base the use of this and similar iiistrunumts on
the assumption that thinking is m(T(‘ly implicit speech
beha\ iour. They also make considerable use of the labio-

' Sidgwiek, H., ibid., p. 209.

“ Involuntary VVhisperin(; ” 107

graph, an instrument which records slight lip movements.
ESP investigators might well take a tip from th(! Behaviour¬
ists by using such instruments in their own experiments.

In weighing tlu! results of the L(‘hmann and Hansen
experiments, we must naturally take, into account the fact
that free play was given to the natural t(*ndency to innervate
the vocal musch^s. Th(‘ result of the eonsequ(^nt exaggera¬
tion of this tendency is precisely what one might have
expected, namely a very larger percentage of successful
‘‘ transmissions —ovct 74 per cent being successful or
half successful. Wh(‘n all allowances are made for the
reflecting mirrors which wer(‘ used, the degree of succ(‘ss in
these experiments is enormously higher than that found
in modern ESP t(‘sts. Not only were the lips firmly closed,
but th<‘ p(Teipi(‘nt had a total of ninety numbers from which
to guess instead of only five. If Lehmann and Hansen liad
carried out llu ir experiments with only five numbers, each
easily distinguishable in sound from the others, then we
might have (expected as many as ninety p(T cent of the
transmissions to be successful. In the modern type of ESP
experinumt oidy five types of symbol are used ; such a
small number is ideal for aiding the suec^essful recej)tion of
sensory cues due to incipient articulation or other involuntary
reactions.

Such terms as involuntary whispering ” or unconscious
articulation ■” are highly inappropriate, unless, of course,
they refer to tietual whispering or gemiine articulation. The
slight movements of the vocal apparatus which arc known
to aecrompany, in varying degree, the processes of consc ious
thinking, are better rc'presc^nted by the term endophasic
imurvaiiom. Properly speaking, endophasia refers to the
silent rei)roduetion of words or sentences “ in one’s head ”
without ovcTt movements of the apparatus of spec^eh.
Generally, howevcT, endophasia is accompanied by a slight
but detectable activity of the vocal organs ; and if, as may
happen, the individual starts “furiously to think'’ the
endophasic innervations of the articulatory apparatus may
blossom out into full-fledged involuntary whispering or even
loud vociferation of which the individual himself remains
unaw^are. There is, naturally, a large series of gradations

Thk Psychology of thk Occult

4.US

between simpli‘ endophasie innervations and the action of
nnconscioiisly talking aloud.

The speed with wliieh modern KSP t('sls arc* (‘arried out
and the lack of any artificial hearing aids must naturally
tend to rcdue(‘ very greatly the successful transmission of
informative cues by endophasie innervation. It is not ieeable,
however, that very few ESP reports state whether the mouth
of the agent, or any other person to whom the (‘ards are
visible, remaim^d firmly closed during the experiments.
Yet the experiments of Lehmann and Hanseai are obviously
very important in r(‘iation to all KSP exjHriments where the
percipient is within hearing range of tlu* agent . Admitt(‘dly
in these experiments, aiul in Professor Sidgwiek’s subse¬
quent confirmatory experiments, the articulation with
closed lips was not carried out uneonseiously. Nevertheless,
they do prove that intelligible articulation with closed lips
is not only a possibility but that by such means information
can be convey(‘d to another ])erson with suflieiently keen
hearing, and that a bystander may have the greatest diflieulty
in (k teeting the process.

Unconscious articulation is a common enough pheno¬
menon, and the above experiments prove that intelligible^
auditory cues may be uneonseiously provided with closed
lips during many types of ESP experiment. Wheri the
symbols to b(* conveyed “ t(*lepathieally ” are few in number,
this is still more likely to occur. Mctc difTercnces in the
tone of breathing may very well become associated in the
percipient’s mind with a specific symbol. But aj)art from
this it seems probable that the actual sound of the words
call be transmitted through closed lips. With the lips
slightly apart, traiismis ion of verbal clues to a hyperaeusic
percipient j)res(‘iits no difficulty at all ; and all ESP experi¬
menters should note that it is very easy to allows the passage
of air through the lips while the lips themselves ar(‘, to all
appearances, firmly closed.

VV(‘ need not discuss further the conveyance of auditory
cu(‘S by means of articulation with (;los€‘d lips. Tlu' facf
has beei) suflieiently well established experimentally, and
anyone can try the experiment out for himself. The ex-
p(*rimenter in telepathy has almost always ignored this

“ Invoi.UNTARY VVlIlSPKKINC ”

409

possibility. Yet it is perfectly olwious from the above that aU
erperinienUt in telepathy must be deemed totally ini'alid where
the percipient is within, possible auditory ranine of the agent,
III the case of a hyperacusic subject the inaxiiauii) extent
of the auditory rangi', when the agent’s lips are closed, is
diflieult to fix, and may well extend to a score of yards or
even more under favourable acoustic conditions.

The higli percentage of successes of th(' Danish experi¬
menters was entirely due to the fact, that the experiments
were earri(‘d out under ideal eonditions. These conditions
do not usually pertain to the modern KSP experiment.
In such experiments the sjieed of guessing the cards is high.
One is not surprised, therefore, to find that articulated
(and other auditory) cues “ get across ” to the percipient
relatividy iid'recpjently. Kacu with a hyperaeusie per¬
cipient the degree of success would only b(“ detected by
methods of statistical analysis.

Tlu' great majority of telepathy experiments carried out
hitherto have been arranged so that the percipient is within
easy auditory range of the agent. Many of tlie clairvoyant
experiments are open to thi' same criticism, beeaiise the
expiTummter or his assistant liave liad the opportunity to
touch or see the cards before or during the exjieriment,
thereby laying the experiment ojien to the same objeidion
as on(“ in which a “ telepathic ” agent is taking part. How-
eviT capably the KSP experimenter may defend such
experiments, the fact remains that once the smallest flaw
in the experimental situation is admitted, the need for a
supernatural or “ paranormal ” explanation of the result
becomes totally redundant.

It seems an almost inevitable conclusion that the good
telepathic agent is nothing more than a responsive “ eii-
dophasic innervator ” or “ involuntary whisperer " ; and
that the success of thi; good “ telepathic ” pereipii'ut and
the suec(“ssful clairvoyant depends mainly on his or her
keenness of hearing.

410

Thk Psychoi.ogy of ttfk Occui/r

The Cask of Ilga K

The ease of Ilga K provides an t‘xtreinely good example
of the type of situation which may arise in telepathy in¬
vestigations. \Vt‘ have here a series of investigations where
the telepatJiy hypotliesis appeared at first to be well and
truly established, but wlu re it was later found that the words
conveyed “ telej)atliieally were du(‘ to aetul articulation by
the ‘‘ telepathic ” agent and to a highly developed auditory
sense on the part of the percipient. Typical of telepathy
investigators, too, was the dogmatic certainty with which
th<' telepathy hypothesis was enunciated by Professor von
Ncureit(T, Professor of Forensic Medicane at the University
of Riga;* NcMireiter, incidentally, had originally shown
himself extremely sceptical when it was suggest'd that he
undertake' an investigation of Ilga K. Both he and his
colleague, Professor Amsler, wctc both professional men of
high academic standing and it is an obj(‘ct lesson to observe
how they, as thousands of other less gifted individuals have
done in the past, fell back on supcTuaturalism as the ex¬
planation of Ilga’s extraordinary faculty.

Ilga K was a niiu' year old Lithuanian peasant girl of
inferior mental capacity born of normal parents. Slie was
exceptionally backward at speaking, and only at the age of
eight liad she e'ventually managed to speak so far as to be
enabled to attend an elementary s(»hool. After a while she
was able to read individual letters but show('d tio capacity
for reading words or c'ven single syllables. Thv, teacher
found, how(‘ver, to his amazement, that if he stood by her
with his eyes on the book she was trying to read, Ilga was
abl(' to read ”, without error, any text he put before her,
even one in a foreign language ! Similarly, with arithmetical
problems which the child was totally incapabh! of solving
by h(‘rsclf, if the teacher or th(* mother worked out the answers
mentally, Ilga gave them the solution without hesitation.
The child’s mother also complained that she could not hide
anything from the child, for Ilga immediately knew where
the object was hidden without being told. Was this ex¬
traordinary faculty of Ilga’s attributable to telepathy ?

‘ WLssen um Fremdes Wissen, Goth:i, 1035 .

Tjik Case of 1l(;a K

1-n

This is what Profi'ssor Ni*\iniltr anil his collaborfitors
wished to find out.

In lh(‘S(‘ tests tJie niotlier aeted mainly as the agent. All
that th(‘ teacher and the mother had tf)l(l the learned in-
vestigjitors about the child’s faculty was fully borne out
during these te sts. Ilga “ solved ” arithmetical problems
and “ read ” not only in Lithuanian but also in Crcrman,
JYeneh, English and Latin. It was noted that mistake's e)f
pronunciation were j)re*(*ise'ly the)se a})pre>j)riate to her
mother’s education. Ilga had ne) neeel to kK)k at a be>e>k.
Thoughts could, ap})are nt ly, be*transmitted nuTe^ly by the
act of thinking. Lists of we>rels anel figures ceiuld be rejK ated
accurately by the ehilel withemt. it apjxareeL the slightest
intervention e)f sense)ry e*ue*s. Neureiter be'(‘ame (‘onvinced
that telepathy was the only e*xplanatie)n, and the authen¬
ticity of his experiments we're* vouc'hed tor lyy several membe'rs
of Riga University. The* pre'ss hailed his rej)ort as something
for whieJi the* world hael le>ng been waiting positive proeif
of the* e'xistence of te'le pathy.

This verdict did not, alas, remain unchallenged. In
}936 and 1937 e)tluT tests were carried out by a Latvian
Ministry of Educatiem e’e)mmission led by lVe>fessor Dahle,
Director of the Institute* e>f Psyche)logy e>f Riga Ihiive rsity.
The v(*rdict of this Latvian (V)mmissie)n was that Ilga's
faculty was base*el uj)on audite)rv hyperaeuity anel that
the mother anel teacher provided her (eemseiously or im-
conseiemsly) with definite auditory and ])ossibly optical
aids.

This conclusion was not re aedieel withe)ut exteiidc'd experi¬
ments and the’ use of me>dcrn te'chnical eejuipmeMit. Ye’t
Neureiter could very well have guessed the ultimate cause
of Ilga’s re'pute'd “ telepathic ’’ function. For whefi the
niother ee)ncentrateel on written words and sentences Ilga
repeated them in an odd monotemous tevne, dividing taeh
word up into separate syllables, which would e*ertainly
have caused inost inv('stigators to suspect that she was
receiving auditory eius syllable by syllable. As tlu* later
Commission subserjiiently found «)ut, this was precisely
the cas(*.

Hut Neureiter was so eertain that the mother, acting
as the agent, did not. provide any auditory cues-- at least

412

Tin: PsYCfioLncv of tup: Occuf.r

none so far as ii(‘ was able to detect -that he (oniniittcd
himself to what ap})earcd th(‘ only other alttrnative, namely
the theory of tcl(‘i)athy. He reported : “ Every |)Ossi-
t)ility of transmission of the conet'ptual contents by the
way of the normally known sensory chann<‘ls whether
optic, acoustic or otherwise has been excluded. We
have to d(^al with a " ]>aranormal ’ relation of person to
person.” This type of statement has a familiar ring.
All j)sychical researchers or parapsychologists have re¬
peated it in one form or another. Th(‘ dogmatic certainty
of such pronouncements in r(‘gard to the exclusion of sen¬
sory cues is completely tyi>ical. Yet the later C’ommission
proved Professor Neureiter’s claims to be nons(‘ns(‘. One
cannot help wondering whedher all such claims made by
ESP experimenters are as groundl(‘ss as Nenreiter’s. lu
any event the case of Ilga K. provides an excellent object
lesson and for that nmon alone is well worth going itdo
at some length.

The whole history of the Ilga K case demonstrat(‘s the
extraordinary care necessary i?i telepathic ” or similar
types of cxperinu'nt. Above all, it shows that Mie un¬
trained or self-trained person is very easily mislead into
faulty ex)ncIusions ; and under the heading of self-trained
in this particular connection may be reckoned almost
every one of those psychologists and ESP expirimenters
who have published results confirming t(*lepathy or clair¬
voyance. The psychical researchcT is seldom fitted by
outlook or by training to study problems involving sensory
hyperacuity and the unconscious prcs(‘ntation of sensory
cues. And it must be add(‘d that he does not in general
wish his investigations into the supernatural to be ex¬
plained away by any such unexciting nieans.

The Latvian Commission possessed both the t‘<piipmcnt
and the trained personnel for tackling the prol)lem pre¬
sented by Ilga, including a dictaphone, (‘lectri(‘ amplifiers,
a phoneticist and an expert in lip-reading. The secret
of her performance was traced, in th(* main, to the auditory
cues (contained in the mother’s continual words and cries
of enciouragement. The phoneticist in the rcj)ort on the
case stated that the* opening sound of the next syllable to
be conveyed to Ilga was tacked on to the end of each word

Thk ( ask ok I1.GA K 41 a

of eTU^ouraircnient or achuonislimcut oflered by the niotluT.
In this way Ilga was unable to pronounce a wliole word but
repeated the syllat)les of llu* word s(.‘j)arately. Proof of
this was forthecuning when tlie deaf-mute specialist found
he could read each of th(' w<)rds from the nioveni(‘nts of
the rnotluT's lips whil<‘ watching h(T through tlie window
of a sound-j)rool* chamber; while Ilga lierself, Ix^ing un¬
able to h(‘ar, was unable to “ read ” th(‘ words lieing trans-
mitt(‘d !

This (juic t arti(‘ulation of th(‘ opening sound or separate
syllables of the words being transmitted was not noticed
in th(* (arly jxirt of tlu* Latvian (\)mmission’s experiments
with Ilga. The fact is important, for it supports w'hat
Lehmann and Hansen demonstrated in principle that
articulated sounds (‘.an be ])icked up by practised or hyper-
acusic individuals, while other less gifted or inexpcTienced
persons j)resent at the time may b(‘ unable to hear them.
This is a fact which the ESP (‘Xperinumter s(‘ldom appears
to aj)preciate.

It was usually found that the gn^ater tli(‘ distance, between
Ilga and her mother the louder became the articulated
sounds. In one series of tests, says the report, the mother
gave so many aids over a distance of thirty-three* feet that
several of the observers were able to hear the correct syl¬
lables before Ilga hiTself uttered them.

Nevertheless, the acuity of Ilga’s hearing was pheno¬
menal. The child’s governess had trained herself to breathe
softly the opening sound of the next syllable to be Iraiis-
mitt(*d. She succeeded by this method in transmitting
words to Ilga with as great a success as the mother. It
was only with ditlieulty, especially at some distanet*, that
observers standing by could detect the souiuls being bn athed
which Ilga picked up so rapidly.

It w'as Ilga’s schoolmaster who had been largely instni-
inental in bringing the amazing faculty of the mentally
retarded child before the attention of the world of seitnu^e.
But repetitions of his book-reading with Ilga showed tliat
the teacher whispered audibly ! Presumably he was
unaware of this fact, otherwise he would not have been
so puzzled over the strange reaction it produced in his
young charge. This was almost certainly a genuine case

414

Twk Psychology of the Occui/i’

of unconscious whispering. The mother’s vocal hints
might also very easily have been an unconscious reaction.
Such whispering, however, is controllable once Mic agent
has had his or lier attention drawn to th(* fact. Professor
Neureitcr, too, provides an excellerd example of uncon¬
scious whisperings in his original investigations of Ilga.
Needless to say, lie attribut(‘d Ilga’s response to tcl(‘pathy.

Neur(‘iter, acting as agent, was attempting to transmit
a sentence in a child’s Lithuanian primer male gaja uz
kleti. lie states that he conct'iitrated hard on his task,
mentally accentuating every syllable but without the l(‘ast
response from Ilga. He was just about to finish the ex¬
periment when Ills eye was caught by an archaic Lithuanian
word Bruhte, which h(' was surprised to S(‘e in a modern
school primer. Immediately Ilga, nc‘xt door, uttcTcd this
very same word. What Neureitcr had believed to be
an instance of telepathy was quite obviously an instance
of unconscious articulation brought about by the sudden
relaxing of his attention from the task in hand.

The part played by auditory eu<‘S in the case of Ilga K
has been thoroughly established. But how could Ilga
without training and (*onscious practice, acquire such an
astonishing faculty ? She had in fact acquired a spontan¬
eous habit of picking up scarcely perceptibl(‘ semi-arti¬
culated sounds and uttering them almost simultaneously
—a habit which would take a normal person mouths of
practise. As often as not, she achie\’ed verbal repetition
of syllables and words which she had heard but which were
inaudible to observers present.

One series of experiments brings out the singularity of
Ilga’s powers of auditory discernment. While the mother
was acting as agent, dictaphone records were made of her
incessant verbal encouragements, which, of course, in¬
cluded the softly articulated sounds and syllables enabling
Ilga to “ read ” her mother’s “ thoughts The records
were subsequently played back to Ilga, who reproduced
successfully a good proportion of the words or separate
syllables contained in the mother’s continual encourage¬
ments. The remarkable thing was that no one else was
able to detect any other sounds apart from the encourage-

The Case of Iloa K

415

merits of the niothcr, oven with tlu* liifrh<*st de^rwcr of ampli¬
fication.

KvklciiMv' Ilia's ^rift did not depend so mueJi on auditory
hyperacuity as a practised ability to discern and diflTcr-
entiatc thos(' particular sounds constituting- tin* cues from
those which (*onstitutcd the mother’s (iieoura^ements.
Slu‘ possessed, in fa.et, th(^ same kind of ]>raetised gift where-
by the cxjiert })iano-tuiier can hear dissonant ov(‘rtoncs
quite indiscernible to the average^ ix rson. Thv fact that
sovit individudls vmi diffnrnlialc and hitvrprvi auditory
cw'H which arc iadisccnnhlc or fucaa iunless to the average
obsmwr is probably the wahi factor coatributiug to the wis-
interpreiatiou of all types of successful ” ESP cdperiineuts.

In the Lehmann and Hansen expcrinu'nts the articul¬
ation with closcil li[)s was deliberate, wliile Iht* convex mirror
amplified and cauglit the soumls thus made. In the ease
of Ilga K. the agent’s lij)s wctc ojk-u and moving but there
was no artificial aids to facilitate hearing. We cannot but
accept the fact that this mentally retarded child dcanon-
strated much the saim* jdienomena as tliat whi(*h Danish
scientists demonstrated with the aid of convex mirrors -
Ilga’s hyperaeusia largcdy fulfilling tlu* fimetion of tJie
latter’s rnerihanieal device.

It would be natural to ask at this stage whe ther modern
ESP experimenters have conducted any research into
hyperaeusia and allied subjects. So far is this from being
the case that the subject appears to bv virtually taboo in
all the heading psychical resi'areh journals today. There
is apjiarently a r(*ai fear that once tlu* floodgates of rational
explanation are opcaied the hosts of ( xperiments which are
claimed to have “ prov(*d ” telepathy and elairvoyanee
will be washed away l)y tlu* tide. A myth has been built
up which must b(* j)reserved at all costs—a myth w^hieh
stat(‘s that telepathy and clairvoyance hav(* been empir¬
ically established as scientific phenomena and tliat there
is no more any nce<l to question the fact. Such myths
can only be preserv(‘d by ignoring all thos<* factors which
would otherwise destroy them.

The following is a good (*xample of the uncritical attitude
adopted by both experimenter and editorial staffs in the
conduct and reporting of ESP experiments.

4H5

Tiik Psv(’H<)r.(K:v OF THF Occri/p

In tlic Journal of Parapsyvholo^y for Dr. H. i)rako

published a rejHirt of a ease very similar to that of llga
K. He presented this ease as an example of ''extra-siai-
sory pere(‘j)tion His re])ort is remarkable for the faet
that it ignores all tlu* findings of the Lat\'ian ('ommission
eoneerning tlieir tests with llga. which had appeared only
six months (‘arlier in the same Journal. Kven more sur¬
prising was lh(‘ fa(*t that the (‘ditorial abstract preceding
Drake’s reiiort made no refenaiee to th(' llga K (‘ase. Yet,
as Avill be seen, the two rej)orts, following so closely ojve
upon the otlur, admit of such a elos(‘ resemblance that
their similarity could not liav(‘ been ignored l)y a mere
oversight, but must be attributed mainly to tiu* jioliey
pursued by the editors of the* above-mentioiu'd Journal.
Comparison b(‘tw(‘en the two ea.s(‘s will show how little
the tith' of Dr. Drake’s report An Unusual Cas(‘ of
Extra-Sensory Perception was justified.

Drak(‘’s subject, a imaitally d(4iei(ait boy refern'd to as
Ho ”, had rtH'eived a (‘crebral injury at birth. At the
age of eleven he was unable to r\m ]>ropeTly, (‘ould not
concentrate (‘xcc])t over sJiort periods, })osscss(‘d an ‘^^^•xtremely
poor memory and was generally mentally ba(*kwnrd to a
marked d(‘grc(‘.

Like llga, he could only read wJieii his mothe r wns looking
at the book by liis side, and he too possessid a marked fac¬
ility for “ reading ” his mother's thoughts. In th(‘ abov(‘
respects Bo's ease was almost identical with that of Ilga’s.
He w^as not subjected, liowcver, to the same intensive study
as llga. Her investigators j)ronoun(*ed, on exeiJlent grounds,
against the hypothesis of telepathy. If Bo had been sul)-
jeeted to the same ty])e of experiments as llga, it may be
fairly assumed that the same conclusions would have b(‘cn
r(*ached.

With few exceptions both llga and Bo gave (‘videnee
of their unusual abilities only when their resj>eetive mothers
were acting as agents. Dr. Drake undertook a consider¬
able number of t(*sts with zencr cards, oftt'n with pheno¬
menal success—on(‘ series of 14 runs, each of 25 card-calls,
producing the unparallelled average of 21 successful guesses
per run. Like llga again, this successful reproduction
of whichever word or symbol his mother was concentrating

IlYPKKArUSIA AND I Jnc’dxscious Pkhc'kption 417

on \v«s invariahly i)rc(M‘(l(‘(l by a verbal (lire(‘1inn or some
form of verbal utterafH-<‘ l>y ilie moilier.

Jt) tliose <*as(‘S wlu re Ho's mollu r did iiol ^i\ e a x erbal
signal, such as tli(‘ \v<a‘ds n'ady ‘ or go ", a toy (‘liekcr
was siil)sliliit(‘d ; in 11i(‘S(‘ eli(‘ker trials'’ his s(‘oring
dropjK'd imniediat(‘ly. TJial it did not drop to elian(*(‘ !(‘vel
was j)robably due, wc may assume, to tla^ taet Hint the
boy's mother was still acting as ag(*nt and tliat sh(‘ was
still (juietly breatliing the symbol upon whi<'li sla* was
eonef*nt rating. Winn someone otlur than Iiis mother
aeted as agent, JJo i'ail(‘d to seon* above ehanec* ( xpeela tion.

The great similarity Indween this “ unusual ease of
exira-staisory perception and lliat of llga K (‘an l(‘av(^
us in no doubt of the ex])lanati^)n of Dr. Drake 's card s(*ores.
It is certainly curious that su(‘h evident hyjxracuity (^f
hearing and quick v(‘rbal nwdions should be found to oc(‘ur
in two mentally retarded cliildren. A usiful analogy
may, ])erliaps, be* found in those (‘hildr(‘n who ])ossess a
faculty of e^xtrcmely rapid nu‘idal caleulatiou of nialhe-

rnatieal problems.many of these* ehildreai l)eij)g me ntally

delieienl to a high degree in most othe‘r re spects.

IIypkkacusta and thk liNcoNscKUis Pkiu’Kption of
Sknsopy (hiKS

In the annals of psychie’al researe^h freepu nt referene*e
has be‘cn made to the ‘‘ tele‘pathy " experinuads of Pro¬
fessor (iilbcrt Murray, the famous elassie'al scholar. These
experiments were even quotes! by Professe)r Jaenseh as
instance's of tlie* occurrence* of te*lepathy in the grave j)ages
of Zcit^chrift fur Psychologic in 1931. It is curiovis, and
vcTy typi(?al, that ])syclii(ral rest*archers liave b(*e*n (*ontent
to ignore the opinion of GilbeTt Murray liinisclf in regard
to these experiments.

Profes.se)r Murray liirnsoJf does not b(*li(‘V(* ttnit tin* results Jic
gets are* due to te*l(*}iatliy, if by that is ineaat llu* traiisinission of
thought without aiel from tlie^ ordinary s<*iises, he*aring, sight, touedi,
etet. As I understand Jiirn, he l»elieves Jie gets into a state wlien he
is peculiarly sensitive to noise, and his hearing beeotne's so acute tliat

The PsYcnoixKiY of the Occult

418

he hears somethinfj of the conversation between the thinkers when
they are settling the subject they are to think about. It is not so
acute, iiowever, that lie can distinguish the M^ords they say, but he
hears enough to sup^est somethin^f to him .... ft is clear that if tliis
were tlie process Mio perciipicnt would liave a much better cliance of
success if, as in this (!ase, the thinkers W'cre cither members of his
family or intimate friends with wliose special interests in literature,
history or politics, as well as incidents in their lives, he was well
ac(piaiiited.” ‘

These expcrinuiiits of Gilbert Murniy are instrueiive,
for they bear out once again the fact that some individuals
are capable of auditory acuity far beyond the* normal range.
In this j)artienlar ease also therc^ is little doubt that the
reception and interpretation of the auditory cues took
place mainly subeonseiously. This factor throws a good
deal of light on the delusioiiary belii^fs of many tele¬
pathic ” per(*ipients. Their belief in a supcTiiatural causa¬
tion of their successes may be largc*ly attributed to the
fact that tluy do not consciously lu^ar tlu' auditory cues.

We can do no better than to c{uote Lloyd Tuckett in this
connection :

“ Another most iniporlant fiossibilily must alw^jiys be borne in
mind in Udepathie experiments, namely lliat scuisory impressions
may affect conseioiisness without beiii^ (tonseiously perceived—in
other words, a subeonscioiis impression may subsequently effect
eonseioiisness.” •

In Professor Murray’s ease the subconsiaous impression
regist(Ted in liis conscious mind a ti^ntative idea which,
on b(*ing checkiMl, was generally found to correspond with
Avhat his agents had been quietly discussing at the other
end of the house.

In 1880 Professors Jastrow and Nuttall conducted some
experiments to asctcTtain whether the human organism
could in fact be suilieiently affected by magnetism for a
person to become aware of it in some slight degree. Nat¬
urally enough, the results were negative, but these experi¬
ments were of v^alue in showing how the operation of sensory

* Sir J. J. Thompson, liecol lections and lie flections ^ p. 157.

* The Evidence for the Supernatural, p. 805.

Hyperacusia and UxconscioUwS Perception 419

cues might afTccrt the individual’s mental activity without
his b(iing awarc^ of them ; if such a situation as this arose
where a trlcjxithic agent was uneonseiously providing the
sensory cues in question, the illusion of telepathy operating
would be complete. And preeis(‘ly this type of situation
is liki‘ly to occur in a great many telepathic and clair¬
voyant experiments. It is therefore worth while here
to give liloyd Tuek(‘tt’s summary of Jastrow’s (*xj)eriment
with electro-magnetism :

“One observer (IIk' jxTcijMrnt) sat on a (‘hair in a room on the
tliird floor of a tall bnildini,^ with his head Ix lwrcn the two poles of
the iiiagmt, which was supported on two adjoinini; tables. The
other observer fthe ajjrcuit) was in a room on the iiroimd floor, turniiij]j
by hand a ^Tamme-dynamo maehine, and so ^(‘iieratin^^ the (airrent
wliieli was eonduet(‘<l to the ele<*tro-inaeiict by heavy insulated wires
runiiinjr out of the window:> iiU»uo tlie wall of the building and in
through a window on the third floor. TJi(‘ assent c*ommimieat(‘d with
tile percipient by a system of (deetrie signals: otlierwise tJiey were
completely isolated from one another, wilii over tliirty feed, and tMO
heavy floors between tJiem. Tlie experiment eonsisted in tJie per-
(dpient trying to say when the eoil was magnetised. They made
eight Jiundred observations during a week, and on one of tlie last
days, a ([uiet Sunday wJien the trams had stopped riimiing, they came
to the coiKdusion lliat at times they were abh^ to deteid the noise
resulting from the turning of the dynamo, and tliat it was conducted
along the wires. There was also anotlier fallac-y. For they found
tJiat on magnetising and demagiielising the magiud, a faint but yet
au<iible molecular crepitation ouMirrcd, llu* sound produced being
a very dull, ratJuT siaideii, click, ddie (dick accom])anying de-
niagnctisation was much more distiiud thun that aeeomjianying
magnetisalion.

“ During the first eight hundn'd experiimuits, the proportion of
correct guesses indicated that thert* was some factor at w<»rk other
than tiiat of pure chance, and if they liad not diseovered the two
fallacdes, ahove-iiientioiicd, tJicir experiments would Jiavc; becui sup¬
posed to prove t he existenei* of a magiud ic sense for tJie detection of
magiKdie waves, tlie ^ odyllic fluid ’ of tJie old inesmc rists. However,
they were able to exclude these two fall.'udes, and then made 1,950
more observations on themselves and various students: whereupon
tlie proportion of eorretd guesses sliowed that there was no other
factor present tlian tliut of pure eliaiice.

“ Thus auditory indications of whieli the jiereipient was utterly

420

Tnu Psychology of the Occult

unconscious wore used ns n >>nsis for Idmun^ tiic jiidj^niciil durin>r
their lirst sj*ri(‘s of experiiueiils.” »

TJu* lesson to !)(' learned froni the above experiments
slum Id l)e noted by all j)syeliieal r(*searc*Iiers. The falla-
eions eonelnsions (irawn in the tirst SOO observations by
sueh a eantioiis investigator as Jasirovv indicates the ex¬
tent to which self-dee('])tion may occur in ESP experiments

The tailiire rnlly to a])pr(‘eiate the issius involved in the
uneonseions perception of sensory cues is itot the only
shorteominir which may b(‘ laid at tlu^ door of the psy(*hieal
researelier. His <*omf)l(‘t<‘ indifTcrenee lo the whol(‘ pro¬
blem of the involuntary communication and imeonseious
ree(*ption of sensory (;ues is apparent from the entire lack
of serious invest ipd ion into tlie problem. Otic niay say
without exaggeration that nearly all the* d(‘duetions of the
ESP experimentiTs are reaelu'd b\ virtue of th(‘ir ignor¬
ance of sueh factors.

The most deca ptivt' of all experiniental situations in ESP
researeli is that in which staisory cues are ])rovided invol¬
untarily by the agent and j>ieked U{) UTK‘onseiously by a
hyperacusic perei})ient. 'Fhal sueh situations may occur
is r(‘asonabiy well substantiated by the c‘ase of Ilga K.
With a hyperacusic ])(Tei])ienl the danger of misinter¬
pret ating the experimental r(‘sults is increased by the
possibility that ()bserv<rs possessing normal hearing are
unlikely to detect the })roeess of transmission betwern
agent and percipient.

It w^as ])ointed out near the beginning of the previous
ehapUr that s(‘nsory hyperaeuity is generally th(‘ result
of psychological, as opposed to physiological, fa(‘tors.
The psychology of sensory hyperaeuity is still not fully
und(Tstood ; so many imponderable factors enter into tlui
problem. There an^ instruments for measuring auditory
acuity, such as the jyhonomvter ; similarly there is the
acoumeier^ an instrument for determining auditory thres¬
holds.

While such instruments as these would be a great asset
* The Evidence for the Supernatural, appendix .1, p. 305.

HypeuacUvSta and Unconscious Pekception 421

to ihv psychical rcscar(*hcr, they cannot measure such fac¬
tors as the sul)j('ct’s powers of subtle discrimination or
difler(‘ntiation of sounds. Nor do tlicy make adecjuate
allowance for lh(‘ emotional state of the. subject or his
mental state* at the time. HyperproseHa, definable as ex¬
treme fixity of att(*ntion, is olttai a ma jor eU^ment in s(‘nsory
hyperacuity, together with a faculty for selective* j)er-
eeption wliic^h can be acejuired with j)raetice or which may
be a natural gift.

Such instruments as the phonometer and the aeoumeter
are (l(sign(‘d to measure the point at vvliieh sensory stimuli
attain suni(*ient magnitude to elicit a eorisnoi.s response*.
When* uneonseious respons(*s are tin* main focus of int(*r(*st,
their use* is obviously limit(‘d. In the ESP exj)erimental
situation the ju’oblcm is to de termim* not mf‘iely the audi¬
tory thr(*sliold of the p(*rei])ient. but the dominant psycho¬
logical factors responsible for the* Iiyperaeusic cHec*! the
ext(*nt to which tin* j)crcipienl can discriminate or difler-
eiitiatc* b(*lw(‘en the doz(*ns of minutx* noises which are reach¬
ing his car simultaneously, the facility with wdiich he recog¬
nises a j)articular noise as the om* useful to him and whethiir
he can corr(*ctly int(*r])ret that noise oiK‘e he has recognised
it. All th(*se factors depend uj)on the make-up of the
individual (*onc(‘rned and they are only measureabh* in¬
directly.

Auditory hyperacuity in the ESP experimental situation
may be said to d(*pend upon four variable* factors : per-
C(*l)tion. discrimination, recognition, and inter])n*tation ; any
or all of which may lake jdaee at the uneonseious level.
Thes(* fa(*tors are in tluir turn influenc(*d by the degree
of natural alertiu*ss, the degree of concentration attained,
and the (*xtent to which the individual concerned can
exclude irrelevant sensory stimuli ; it is the variations in
these psychological factors which an* almost certainly
responsible for many of the various “ decline ” and “ posi¬
tion ” effects fouml by Rhine and his collaborators.

It may be seen, from the above, that the successes of
the successful ESP percipient may be due not to any actual
keenness of hearing, but to a natural or a trained faculty
for discriminating and interpreting minimal sounds and

422

The PsYCHOLOdY of the Occult

movements from among the total number of sensory stimuli
presenting themselves to the percipient’s senses.

The “ Sixth Sense ” of the Blind

The extent to which the sense of hearing can be develope d
and the uses to which the resulting hyperacuity can be
put is well exemplified by the way in which blind people
may gain information from slight noise^s and echoes, which
are imperceptible to the ear of those who possess the sense
of sight. The subject is one of extraordinary interest
and is well worth discussing briefly even though it is some¬
thing of a diversion from the main subject,.

Th(i amazing faculty, which the blind often possess,
of sensing obstacles in their j)ath, has long been a source of
controversy among psycdiologists. During the last thirty
years, however, a great deal has been done to clarify th(^
position, and it is now possible to state with aceuracy the
main principles whereby the blind achieve their skilful
sensing of obstacle's and the objects which surround them.

Their foculty for s(‘nsing objc'cls, although expli(*able
by normal psychological principles, has nevertheless given
rise to the myth of a “ sixth sense This was perhaps
inevitable, for the mass of mankind almost invariably
reverts to mystical explanations when fac(*d with probh'ins
beyond its immediah' comprehension. The blind have
themselves, until fairly recently, believed in and contri¬
buted to this theory of a sixth si'nse. Indeed, in many
countries, ancient and modern, the blind hav(' reccivc^d
considerable advantag('s and have beeri highly respected
through the mystic qualities ascribed to them. Through¬
out the ages they have been credited with tlie gift of being
able to “ see ” or “ sense ” not only those things in im¬
mediate proximity to them, but also clisUwt objects and
events, whether in the past, the present or the future in
point of time.

The fact remains, however, that the normal blind person
uses the senses still nmiaining to him to facilitate his acti¬
vities, particularly the senses of touch and hearing. It
is his skill, and the use to which he puts his auditory sense,

“ Tm: “ Sixth Sensk ” of the Bund

428

which seems so uncanny at the time, and which has given
rise to the belief in tlie blind man’s supernatural powers
of vision.

Many blind pt^ople can sense, at some distance away,
the presen(r(.‘ of obje(?ts in or near their line of advance.

“ They generally loealise these sensations on tJieir forehead, or on
their Uanples, and only those objects which are high as the face are,
as a general rule, perceived by them in this way .... The blind
perceive by the ear what they believe liic?y ])erccive by the skin.” ‘

Those w'ho wish to go a little deeper into this problem
would do well to read tlie chapter on “ I’lie Substitution
of the Senses ” in Villey’s excellent monograph, 7V/c World
of the Blind ; M. Villey, although a professor of litiTature
at Caen University, has himself been totally blind from
a very (‘arly age.

By no means all the blind possess this faculty of sensing
obstacles ahead of tlu^m, and with those who do possess it
there are gr(‘at variations in its elfi(‘acy. Those who have
it in a highly developed degre(‘ will amaze those who ob¬
serve it in operation for the lirsl lime ; objects may be
sensed at surprising distances. IIow<^v(t, “ it is gem rally
thos?* who become blind wdieii young who avoid obstacles
with the greatest succ(‘ss, and who have the j)r(‘sentiment
of them at the greatest distance's.”*

The auditory sense is the main factor in blind jieople’s
sensing at a distanet*. Other contributory factors, however,
are skilful interpretation of variations in lem])erature,
variations in direction and strength of bre ezes and draughts,
and in the case of the deaf-blind, the sense* e)f smell anel the
detectie)n and interpretatiem e)f vibrations through their
f(*e*t or those parts of their bodie*s in contact with the vi¬
brating me*dium. These subsieliary methods, howeve'r,
aref useel more e)r le.*ss e*e)nsciously and supplenu*nt the aueii-
tory sense?, which Ville*y compares to the subtle fa(»ulty
of the bat, an animal wdiich guieles itsedf in the dark by
hearing aleme. Like the bat, toe), the sensing e)f e)bje*cts
practically vanishes when the ears are? hermetie*ally seak*el,

^ V’illcy, ibi<l., pp. 101 sumI 104.

■ Ville*y, ibid.

424

The Psychology of the Occ‘iH/r

or, in the case of the deaf-blind, with the sealing of the
nostrils.

It is the little eonlimious noises whieli help the blind
most - the (Tackling of a fin\ a fountain heard in the dis¬
tance', <'r the rumble of traffic. These noises are contin¬
uously Ix'ing delleeted from every object surrounding the
blind man, and it aids both his stnising of these objec'ts
and his orientation in re'gard to them.

One' of the chief factors giving rise' to the lu'lie'f in a sixth
sense' lie's in the re'markabie fae't tliat the' blind, generally
speaking, localise their auditory impre'ssions on the fore-
he'ad. This is a most inteTCsting j)he'nome‘ne>n. As Kunz
pointe'd out, m(»st of the blind te'iul to pre'sent their fore¬
head towards the object tliey wish to locate, a s})e>ntaiU‘OUS
ge'stiire explicable' by tlie? fact that the fore'he'ad lie's more
or less centrally betwe‘e*n the two e'ars which are the real
sensory organs, although the vague and lle'cting sensations
are not re'cogniseei as auditory im[)re‘ssions. In this eon-
uection Vilk'V, himself blind, writes :

Ttic Joealisiition is, liowt*ve*r, so ele'eiete'el, lluit many blind peTsoiis
refuse to admit the liypollirsi.s ed' an illusion. And ye't the* illusion
appi'ars clearly in an cxpcriim'iil like the followinf^ : I plae'e the ])lunk,
of which WT Jiavc already spe»kcn, at 70 c'cnl imet re's from my forehead.
I have no seii'iation of it at all. It is all in vain that I eoneMmtrate
my attention. I do not perceive anythinj^. T led. my first linger
slid * ov^tn* my Ihumh so that my tingers make a slight noise. Irn-
meeliately the* ot>staeIe sensation invael(*s the wdiole surfaee of my
forcdiead. Tlie* auditive surroundings alone ha\'e been eliangeel;
the cause* f)f tlic s(*nsatioii ap|>(*ars exelusiv<*ly tae*tile. If, on the
contrary, I move? iny fingers without making any noise, iiei sensation
is j)ere?eivTd.” •*

Ville'V lias not recognised the autosuggeslivc nature
of this se nseiry hallucination. It is produee'd by a com¬
bination of suggestive inllueiieies, which arc eiomposed of
sev(‘ral factors : the fear of hitting or bumping the face,
the traditional belief among the' blind that the forehead
is the ec'iitrc of a sixth sense', the forehead’s flat expanse
which to the imagination appears naturally suitable for

■ ibid., p. iLi.

“ Till-’ “ SlXTTl Sknsk ”

OF THE liEINl)

425

the “ imprint ” of impressions, and the eentral p(*sition
in rt'ffard to f Jie real organs of sense, in this case the ears.
For the blind the forelu'ad acts as a direction-finder to syn¬
chronise the auditory impressions reaching the two ears.

There is no doubt that if a blind child knew the true
state of affairs from earliest infancy and were kept insulated
from the ideas possessed by other blind individuals, the
forehead sensation would usually be lacking. One may
note in passing that many normal individuals can feel a
similar sensalion if they bring a sharp object, such as a needle,
within a fraction of an inch of llie nose or forehead without
actually toueliing the skin. Tin- expectancy evoked, with a
probable component of a])j)rehension, combines l(* ])roduec
a mild but dist inct sensalion in that part of the skin which
app(‘ars most likely to be fouclied by the object.

Chapter Twenty-Six

CRITICISM OF THE AMERICAN ESP
EXPERIMENTERS

JFor ovj:r half a tKNTiiKv (iitliusiasts of psyoiHcal
research, scactiiiTK* o(*(niltisH), or parapsychology as it is
now frequently (‘all(*(l, hav(^ been trying to dt‘monslrate
tli(‘ existence of t(‘l(‘|)atliy and clairv^oyane(‘ hy statistically
assessable expcTiinent s. Each exp(Tirn(Miter in I uni has
claimed to liave proved the existence^ of one or tlu* oilier,
appannlly im})elled to do so by Hie sfiort-(*ojnin^s in th(i
experimeiits of liis |)r(*deeessors. Today universities in
England, Holland and the* United States have* given ollie*ial
ree*e)gnitie)n tei the weirk of such t‘Xj)e‘rime‘ni.s. aiiel have
on at least eight eieeasieins granteel baedieleirs’ and t ven
eloeteirs’ (le*gre‘es for experiine-nlal weirk eir written theses
on parapsyeheilogy. The* man in the street cannot there-
fe>Tt' be* bl‘,uneel if be has e*e>\ne* \s\ belw.ve* that telepathy
anel elairve)yaiu*e are neiw seientifie*a,lly e*stablishe‘d facts.
Yet seientilie* recognition e»f the‘se‘ e*xpe*rime‘nts has ne»t,
in fact, bee*n fe)rthce)nung anel only a ve‘ry small minority
e)f })sye*hole)gis1s and scientists give* th(*m (*re*ele‘n(*e*.

'Fhe* evielene*e for telepathy anel clairvoyance is d(*me)n-
strably eif a very poor ejuality, ele*sj)ite‘ the gre*at mass eif
experiments that have be*en carrie^d eiut. The greuinds
of e*ritieism are numerems, the ediief eiiu's be‘ing the bias
anel unreliability e)f the experime‘nters, the vague.ne'ss eif
sue*h terms as t<lepathy and clairvoyariee which have
ne‘veT been give*n a de‘firiition in any scientific s(*nse of the
weirel, anel tlie* fact that parapsycholejgists in g(*ncral tend
to igneire siie*h factors as hypeTacuity of the senses and tlie

Criticism of Amkkk’an ESP Expkkimenters 427

unconscious dissemination and assimilation of sensory
cues during their (‘xperiinents.

Today the main proponent of extra-sensory perception
—a term which subsumes both telepathy and clairvoyance
—is Dr. Joseph Rhine of Duke University in the IJtiited
Stfitcs. Dr. Rliine has publislied se^veral tKK)ks on his
experiments and those of his followers, and he also edits
the Journal of Parapsychology, now in its sixteenth or
seventeenth yt^ar. Th(‘ volume of expfriiiu'ntal work
report(‘d under his aijs])iec‘s is eonsiderabh*, and if the
claims of th(‘ American ESP e\j)erimeiit<‘rs wen- to be* judged
by the niimbcT of (‘xperiments they ha\(‘ carried out, the
case for ESP or ( xtra-sensory perei ption would have* been
accepted long ago. Such, howa-ver, has not b(‘(‘n th(‘ ease,
and for s(^vi ral vi'ry goc)d reasons.

In England tlie main focus of intenst in ESP research
has b(*(*n the telepatliy experiments of i)r. S. (h Soal of
London University. Though relatively few in number
compared with the large numbers of exix rimc nts n ported
by his transatlantic confreres, SoaTs expiriments are of
a far higher ipiality and pn^sent a filature which until now
has de(i(‘d rational explanation. In view of the fact that
many jicojilc regard SoaFs experiments as the test case for
extra-siaisory perc(‘ption, spi'cial attiMition has beiii given
to them and a full critical analysis is given in the next
chapter.

American ESP (‘xjxTimentiTs use a variedy of pro¬
cedures basixl on the use of “ zener ’’ cards. A i)aek or
de(*k of zener cards consists of twenty-live* cards, tlu* face
of each being mark<*d with one or anotlur of the following
symbols—cross, waves, r(*ctangle, star and (*irele. There
are five of eacli symbol in each pack or de(h. The aim
of the (‘xperiment is for the percipient to guess the ordiT
of the cards without looking at them. Theoretically sen¬
sory cues of any kind are excluded from r(‘aehing the per¬
cipient. In practici* this is a relatively rare occurrence
owing to the experimenter’s ignoram*c of the modes in
which minute sensory cues may be disseminated.

The first and most ol)vious criticism of ESP (‘xperiments
in general is tliat in few^ experiments have scientific methods
of experimental control been employed. Unl(‘ss consider-

428

The Psyc’Houh;y of the 0(xui/r

ations of distnncc have forced it on tlicHi ESP expcrinien-
ters seldom take tlie lroult)Ie to isolate the percij)ient com-
pletelv from all possible' sources of information or inform-
atory cue s ; nor have th(‘\ used automatic recording devices
—device's whieli should record automatically both the
order of the cards to be' ^ue'ssed if Ihe're' is ne) previously
prepan el list, as ^vell as the' orele'r of the pere*ij)ient\s guesses.

If ESP ex]>eTiments are to bee*ome eeme'lusive, tlu'u the
proce'elure used must be' sue*h as to renele'r be>1h recording
errors and the operation of sensory cues a ]diysieal im¬
possibility. Meist se-ii'iitisls would regard these' ])ree'autions
as the abseilute minimum re'ejuire'd. Whe'ii rigiel e'ontreds
are consistently avoide'd, se'ie'iitists smedl a rat and usually
with ge)e)e] e*ause. Aiiel the pre>j)onents e)f extra-se‘nse)ry
perce'plion and ])sychokine'sis must face* the fae't that in
ne)t a single- '' suc'ce'ssful “ parapsyehole)g-ie*al (‘xpe-riment
has this minimum ele-gre-e e)f e-xpe-rime-iital e*e)ntrol bc'cn
applie'el. Tlie ''down thre)ugh " te-ehniepie, in wliie-h the
pere'ipient has te) guess ther e)rder e>f a ])aek e)f /.( ue r e*arels
as they slanei, e'emld we-ll be' reneie're-ei fe)e>lpre)e)r if use-el in
conjunction with an aute)matie re‘(*e>F*eJe-r. Even then,
expe-rie-ne-e' has shown that the pae*k we)uld have le> be
placed in a be)x with a loe*ke'el lid by an assistant whe) had
ne) eontae't with any one- present at the earel-gue'ssing,
neither imme-ehately be-fore nor during the <‘X])erim(‘nt, if all
possibility of sense)ry cue's is to be' ruleel out. (h-nuine
random elistribution of the e'arels through elfe'C'tive'shiiffling
or e)thcr nie*ans we)ulel also be' re*e|uire‘ei.

Tlie fact is that e*arel-gue*ssing is the* le*ast ]>rae*tie‘al way
of testing subjects for e'Xtra-se-nsory ])e‘re*e-})l ie)n. The
me-the)d is te)e) clumsy alte)ge'the'r and the- e'xelusion e)f sensory
cue's is a far me)re' elilheult problem than e)ne might natur¬
ally e‘X})e-et. Only expe'rime'iits invedving the- e*e)mpleter
isolation e)f the pe-reijiie-nt and the use' e)f aute)matic re¬
cording eleviees e'an e'ver be' re'gardcd as e*rucial in any
except long-elistane*e* experiments.

One of the ])ossibl(' re'asons why Rhine and his brother
ESP e'xpc'riuK'nte'rs have ne\Tr take'n the maximum safe¬
guards against the- j)ossibility e)f semsory aids is that on
Rhine'’s own admission such expe'riments have almost
invariably proved failures. In introducing a percipient

Ckitk^IvSM of Amkki(\an ESP Expkrimp:nteks 429

new to ESP tcst-proccflun*, Ik* advises the ESP cxptTimenter
to stKrt under more or less inlVn-nud eonditions and not
to trouble very mueh about the aetual experimental eon-
trols the latter, he says, (*an beeome strieter once the new
p(Teij)i(‘nt has demonstrated his eapaeity muler tlu* more
informal eonditions.

To lead tile new p<'r<*ijhent straight into the* (*onditions
of a riyid test-procedure, it is elainud. must sulijeel him
inevital)ly to a sense of strain and produces a lack of eon-
tid(‘nee in himself; inliibitions art* dev<‘lop(‘d. This argu-
m(‘»d is ^ alid as far as it goes, but the results of such informal
expirinunts are far more lik(ty to he due to tlu* ojuTation
of t.lie p('r(*ipic‘nrs sensory faeulli(‘s than to extra-s(‘nsory
p(*reepti(»n ; certainly then* is no m(‘ans of ascertaining -
if W(‘ ae<‘ept for the sake orargunu^nt the validity of the ESP
hy|)othesis - which of the* two modes of jnreeption is likely
to b(‘ ojierating. It. almost invariably happens that if a
p(Teipi(*nt is subjected to increasingly strieter experimental
controls, his score av(‘rag(‘s b(*eome (‘orrespondingly lower,
if not petering out altog(‘ther. The significance of this
fact needs little comment.

Out of the doz(‘n or num* experimental proe(*dures used
at one time or another by American parapsychologists,
only the “ down through t(‘ehniqu€ is capable of totally
€*xeluding sensory aids and even in this ease mueh depends
on the experimenters' care and tlie manner in which the
proeedun? is used. As it is, tlie j)aeks are seldom put in
closed containers and there is usually someone in the room
who has the pack in full view.

The obvious solution to all such difTiculties would be to
place the pereii^ic^nt half a mile away and arm him with
a stop waleh to synchronise Iiis gmsses with the cards
of the agent or experimenter. \'et apart from a number
of badly supervised early experiments at Duke University
most long distance experiments have provided results vary¬
ing little from ehanec-expectation ; the vast majority of ESP
experiments have been carried out with the percipient
in the same room as the cards. It never seems to have
occurred to the experimenters that anyone who has a chance
of seeing or touching the cards is capable of passing informa-

4:^0 ThK PSYCHOTXMiY iW TllK OCCITLT

tiori to tli(' percipient by involuntary signs or sounds,
including involuntary articulation.

Professor Win. MeDougall, a keen supporter of para-
})sychoIogy, one(* wrote : I in^ed not set forth again here
the r(‘asons why in this field the observer and reporter
must have more than common honesty and eompeteiice,
mort‘ than the obsiTver and r( 4 K)rt(T in any other branch
of science.”' Pan Rliine and Jiis associates be said to have
maintained this high standard? A perusal of Rhine’s
own books and the contributions and rejiorts in the Journal
of Parap.siicholn^y reveal a st^indard (piite unaeeej>table
to orthodox seitnee, (‘ven taking into consideration that
many such reports are inbaidcd for the geiKTal public
(which is far from being ahvays the case).

The* validity of th(‘ American (‘xperiimaits in telej)alhy
and clairvoyance ultimately boils down to the competence
and the good faith of th(‘ expcTimenters. Most of the
“ successful ” AiiKTican KSP exjxTimcnts (»an b(‘ ac¬
count'd for by a patent laxity in guarding against sensory
cues of one kind or another, and from this fact we may
n'usonably infer that ESP exiieriiiuadcrs as a whole lack
technical insight and cflicieney. From collateral evidence
vfc further infer that thc'V are lacking also in scientific
detachment and critical ability ; the nature of this collateral
evidence will be discussed further on. It is not surprising
to find, therc'fore, that much of Rhine’s defence of ESP
experinu'nts has had to hv <lcvot(‘d to the (lucstion of the
good faith of the ('xpcTimenters (concerned—which, as
l)r. MeKcen Pattell pointed out in 1938, is not of the least
scicntilie intcTcst to anyone.

This lack of insight and critical ability is nowhere better
illustrated than by the fact that, in the Journal of Para-
jjsyclwlogy and other journals of psycrhical research the
explanation of telepathic* and clairvoyant (experiments
in terms of sensory cues is never evcai attempted. In¬
variably the interpretation given is the one most favourable
to the “ theory ” of supernatural agenc,ics or faculties.

Many of Rhine’s earlier tclc^pathy experiments were
conduetc'd with c^nly the most naive precautions against
sensory aids. The subjc'ct was generally allowed to see

' Foreword to Beyond Normal Cognition, p. .'3.

i'KlTinSM OF Amkhicwn KSP Kxpkkimfntfks

the backs of the cards, and was often allowed to touch
them, while no jmeautions wen^ taken to exclude the
possibility of the involuntary dissemination of sensory cues
by the agent, or by tlic controlling experimenteT himself
when th(' latter was looking at the? card-facets. I^ven the
card-symbols the*msclve‘s weTe subse*eiuently fenmel ie) be
observable from the bae*k if h(‘ld at a certain angle, while
the irregular ]>atterns e)n the backs were ai\ obvk)US source
e)f infeirmatie)!! to anyone who hael previously inspccteul
the pack.

As an examj)le e)f Khine‘\ attitude* to his early expeTi-
me‘nts, wt may epiote the* instance in whiedi one of his be^st
subje'cls, liin/mayeT, guessed corre‘e‘tly a te)fal of 21 carels
out of 25, the lirsl tift(‘e‘n b(‘ing gue‘sse‘el wilhemt a single
error. If we etnepiin* as te> the e*e>!iditie)ns e)f this test of
extra-sensory p('re*e‘ption. we iinel tlial it took ])lae*e in an
autome)l)ile with lihinc anel Linzrnayt r sitting in the fremt
scat. Yet Ilhine etoulel still wTitc : With all the se‘e‘pticisin
I can muster, tlienigh, I still elo not se*e how any se'nse)ry
cue* e'e)ulel have revealed to LinzmayeT the symbe)ls of those
21 cards he called e'orreelly.” ® That Ilhine himse*lf could
have provielcd the ne e'e'ssarv e*ue‘S eleie s not appear to have
e)ccurr(‘el to him. Sue'h a loathing ele nionstral ion e>r ignorance,
is instructive, however, for it shows })eTfectly clearly that
Rhine’s preoccupation in things occult, has fre)m the start
been perp(‘tuatid by badly controll(*d “ e‘xpeTimcnts ”
anel a concomitant misinterpn'tatie)n of the results.

An even me)re cxtr<*mc example of Rliine’s early attitude
is provielcd by his e*xpcrim(‘nts wdth a horse. The con¬
clusion he arrived at was that there was strong evidence
for the possil)ility e)f tcdepatliy ope'rating bctwe'cn man and
the equine spe'cics. These expeTiments ” are reminis¬
cent of ClcvcT Hans, e)ne* e)f the nedorienis Elbcrfcld horses.
Clever Hans, by his genuine mathematk’al calculations,
aroused such pulilic inte*rest tliat the GcTinan psychologist
Stumpf was askeel by the* authoritie s to investigate. Stumpf
reported that ('k*ve*r Hans, who gave his answiTs by head-
nodding and heK)f-tapping, responde‘d to small involuntary
signs scnse)ry cue's ”) given by his trainer. Dr. Rhine

* Frontiers of ttw Mind, ]>. 92.

432

The Psvrnor.odY of the Occ ri/r

was piTsiiniably a(‘(piainle(l with this case at th(‘ time
of liis own iiiv(\sti^ati()n

A typical c\anipl<‘ of Dr. llliirK^'s fa(*ilc approach to Jiis
subject is provided )>y his comments on IVoh'ssor H. Hi(‘ss’
cxpcrinuMits. This is a case wIutc the e\])erinu'nlal r<‘sults
were almost certainly obtained by fraud on the part of the
percipicid ; where iJic (^\])<Tim(Mdal controls vvcr(‘ so poor
as to }>c non-c\ist(‘nt : wlicn* (‘V(‘n the experimenter, Pro-
f(‘ssor Ri(‘ss himsc'lf, attached littl(‘ importanei* to tJie re¬
sults; and wh(‘r(‘ th(‘ enormous j)r()portion of success ob-
taiiK'd was itsc'lf a serious ground bu' sus])jeion of fraud.
Vet in tile Jirurnal of l^iropsijcholo^^ii Rhini‘ included this
very series of ( xpeTinu nts among tliose wliieli, in his own
words liav(* hardly been sur])assed on safeguards, if in¬
deed tliev can be."* Nine years later Rliine r(‘allirmed
his bilief in tli(' \alidity of lliese (‘xpcTiments iii his book
The lieach ofihr Mind, when* he ndernd to IVof(‘ssor lii(‘ss’
p(Tei|)ient as a '"very able subject."'

Dr. Riess’ famous, though anonymous, subjeed ”—
to epiote Dr. Rhine again, was a young woman of twenty-
six who at a elistanee eif approximately a ejuarter of a mile^
guessed eeirreetly 1,340 cards out of a total eif 1,850. This
feat is wathenit any paralle*! in tlu‘ eaitire history of jisyehieal
research experinu'ut. The extremely high scores of the
subj(‘et are se» ('xeeptional as to demand the most rigorous
and detailed (‘xaminalion of tlu* conditions under which
tlie experinu‘nts w^ere carried out IxTore the re'sults may
be acce^pted as due to tele])athy even by tliosei who regard
telepathy as j)roved. Vet Rhine unhesitatingly eommitU'd
himself to the genuineness of the experiments to the extent
of hailing the results “ as the highest rate of scoring thus
far n ported in the entire history of jiarajisychology.” ’
“ This marvellous series ”, says Rhine, was conducted
“ und(T good conditions’'“ —all this despite^ the fact that
Professor Riess himself reported that “ In view of the
many uncontrolled factors^' the data as jiresented arc to be

=• |>.

- p. 135.

* The Reach of tfie Mind, p. 4-H.

* ibid., pp. 49 and 48.

* author’s italics.

Ckitk^ism ov American ESP Experimenters

thoufifhl of as su^^isfivt^ only.”"'* It is also worth noting
Professor Kiess"' own admission ihat sut)S(*(jii(*nt (*onlrol
groups with (>7 college girls ttndrr niwit hrffrr condilions *’
yielded no significant r(‘suhs.*

In vit‘W of Iht* suspicion nalurally aroused by tin- pro-
iiuetion of siieJi an extremely liigli rale of’ seoring. together
with Professor Ili("ss’ own observations eoneerning the
paucity of experiiiKaital (‘ontrols. it may be wondi‘red wlietlier
Rhine's motives are i)urely to serv<' the ('aus(‘ t»f seienee.
VVliat were the actual conditions of the experiment which
Khin<‘ claims to oc of sucli excellence ?

The subject. Miss S., had a rc^jiutation of l)eing an amateur
“ psychic She ha<l (‘ome to the notice of Profe ssor
Riess in the following maiiiKT. Professor Hicss had pro¬
claimed his disbelief in lel(‘pathy and (*lairvoyance to his
students and derided to undertake (‘xperiments to establish
his eontiTition. During a discussion on ESP at one of
Professor Ri(‘ss’ general psy(*hology classes one of the studcMits
stated that he had a IVitaid who possessed '' high ESP ”
and who would act as a test subject. With his anonymous
subject Professor Riess carri(‘d out two thousand eard-
gu(‘ssing trials using synchronised watchers and proceeding
at the rate of a trial a mimite. Professor Riess and Miss
S. remained in tlair own honas, which wtTc about aOO
yards aj)arl, during the tests.

So far all secans well. Hut the (piestion must be askt'd :
4 lid tlu* conditions of the (\xp(Tim(‘nt allow the possibility
of th<‘ amat(^ur ‘‘psychic" or one of the stu(lents not
forgetting the student who had suggest(‘d Miss S. in th(‘
iirst instance -to aller th(‘ yxTeipient’s records during the
course of tlv tests? Or ali(*rnatively. did they permit
the possible* inspection of Proh'ssor Riess' own records
before the jiereipient’s records had been inspected by Pro¬
fessor Riess himself? The auswiT is emphatically in the
aiTirmativc*; the conditions were exee(‘dingly favourable
to su(‘h practice's. For note the following points which
Professor Riess (piitc openly and candidly gives us for our
perusal.

■ J. ParapsychoL, 1R37, p. 2(i3.

• ibid., p. 261 .

T\\\\ ov THV'. Occvu/v

4‘M

(])tht‘ card records were kept in a desk drawer—in
Professor Riess’ home presumably.

(2) the eard-reeords were not looked up during tht* day.

{3} (hirinfi the day following the session, the subjc‘et’s
records were mailed or delivered to the experimenter.” ‘

(4) “ as a rule the slieets were eompared during the vve(*k-
end.” *

(5) the subject's home was only a few hundred yards
from that of Professor Riess.

It may be seen that the records wen* easily accessible
to anyone reasonably well known to Professor Riess, and
that there was j)leiity of iinu‘ available for any such person
to inspect them Ixd'on* llu* records were ehec^ked in some
cases an (aitin* week and possibly longer. One is bound to
ask whether, if Miss S. delivered her sciore sheets in person,
Professor Riess was always at home ; presumably he was
usually absent during most of the day attendii\g to his
duties as a (*ollege {)rof(‘ssor. It is also to be pr(\sum(‘d,
in absence of evidence to tlie contrary, that discussion of
the experiments nu^ant that tlu* penapient was fairly often
in Professor Ri(‘ss’ hoi!»e. If all these factors are taken
into consideration, tlu‘ unlocked d(‘sk and the weekly check¬
up begin to appear somewhat (|uesti()nable ; it seems an al¬
most foregone coiudusion that tin* percipient obtained
her high scores by tlu' simple process of inspecting Pro-
fessor Riess’ records and copying them out.

This was the experirmmt which Rhine included as among
those* which “ have hardly been surpassed on safeguards.”
In view of the exceptional score obtained by the subject,
fraud as an explanation w^as the first hypothesis to be in¬
vestigated. It is typical that this most obvious line of
approach was totally ignored by Rhine, though it appears
to have been entertained by Professor Riess himself, who
offers in his report the opinion that the experiments were
nothing more than suggestive ” in view of the laxness
of the controls.

This glossing over the unfavourable features of experiments
in ESP is noticeable in nearly all the written rejmrts of Rhine
and his associates. His treatment of the Rif^ss ease is not

1 author’s italics.

■./. ParapsychoL, 1939, p. 79.

^.'HvrunsM ov A^MEIIICAI^ ESP Expekimknters 485

exceptional ; ( xperiruents ” with an ev(^n less degree of

sei<‘ntific control are reported in the Journal of Parapsychology
as contributing to the evidence h)r telepathy and clairvoyance.
That the results of the Hiess experiments W'ere fraudently
obtained tlierc is searec ly a shadow of <loubt, and Professor
Riess himself was the unwitting victim. Professor Riess
need not have been placed in the awkward situation of having
to uphold a badly eontrolled series of cxperim(‘nts which lu^
himself eh'arly j)oints out as poor, and it was ce rtainly never
his int(Mition to have* theses tests l)allyhoo(*d as the highest
scores ever aehieveel in KSP tests. Rhine's enthusiasm
undoubtedly ])Iac(‘(l him in a false* j)osition.

t'oneeTiiing the anonymous subjt*et with Viigh ESP ” we
will (|Uote for the* last lime from r*rof(*ssor Riess and leave it
at that. She has sin(‘e unfortunately, disappeared into
th(‘ Middle* W(*st and at prese*nt is not available for further
w<>rk."‘ Was that tlie final ‘‘‘ safeguard *’?

It is ((iiite evident that Dr. Rhim*'s iudgnu‘nt is persistently
dominat(‘d by a wholeh(*arted and uneriti(‘al enthusiasm for
the cause of KSP. To eonvinee the seientifie world of the
existence of KSP has long b(H‘n his unremitting aim. Did
RhiiK* knoxv that the Riess e*x[>eriments we*re poorly control¬
led ? It seems impossible* that he did not, whe*n Professor
Ric'ss Iiad speeitieally ])ointed it out in (?onsid(*rabl(* detail.
Kith(*r Rhine* was pre*pare*el te) ignore the fae*ts in the inte*re*sts
e)f his campaign te> fe)ste*r interest in ESP in the lhhte*el States,
e»r else* a charge e)f gre)ss e*arelcssuess must be interre'el. Tlw
latter hypothesis see*ms too increelible* to be*lieve*. Yet the
fact remains that Rhine has naively aee*e*pte*el th(*se tests as
authentic, and uncone*erneelly accepts the re*sults as ehic to
extra-se*Tisory pt‘rceptie)n without apf)are*nt the)ught fe)r the
weakne*ss e)f the e*ntire e*ase.

The deliberate gle)ssing e)ver e)f the* weak sjK)ts in FjSP
experiments, of wliich the above* example is but one out of
many, is not only extremely damaging to Rhine’s reputation
as a scientific psychologist, but puts into disrepute the whole
parapsychologieal li(*ld of study of which he is, in the United
States, the acknowledged leader. The conclusioii cannot be
avoided that all ESP experiments in the United States which

• •/. Parapsychol., 1938, p. 270.

?^^7y/////yyY/r ///' r///i' D/ap/t

have 1)0011 ooiuluoted on tlio liasis of tho oritcTia aoo( plod by
Rhino aro opon to suspioion. Siioli an iinorilical attitude* of
mind, which is in evddonco in almost every report, paper and
article on ESP in the rnited States, cannot, in the opinion
of th(‘ orthodox scientist, be productive of cxpeTimcntal
accuracy—niiicli less so when operative prin(*i{)les m w to
science arc deduced from such experiments !

Before a pi(*ee of seicaitifie research is ace(*pt(‘d. we must
either be able to verify tin* rt sults by a repeatable experiment
or else w’e must be eonviuced of the (‘omp(‘t(*nee and p(T'
spicacity of the experimenter. In the ease of ESP (xperi-
ments neither of th(‘s<‘ <*onditions are fulfill(‘d. It is elaim(*d
that ESP experiments have b(*en re peated, but they are not
repeatable in the technie^al sense* e)f the term. Moreover,
as w^e have seren, the* e;xpe rimentors Ihemselves tend always to
^loss over unfavourable facts wdiile aec‘(*ntuating those
finelings favourable to preconceived ne)tions of a supe*rnatural
faculty. Such bias as this must certainly reflce*! on the ir
ability as srientific experirneaiters.

The charge* of de*libe*rate fraud against the Ame rii'an ESP
experimenters is not one to be considered very seriously,
with, perhaps, a fe w e‘X(aptions. The repeirted results in
the main are* elue? te) faulty methe)ds of observatie>n and to
erroneous interjirelatieins. Yet wishful-thinking is so evident
in parapsychole)gical literature that it is surprising tlie
parapsychologists the*mselves appe*ar ignorant of it.

Another fae*tor of great importane*e in illustrating Rhine’s
unscientific approach te> his subject is the way in which he
has e*xtensively popularised his findings befeire the seie-ntific
WTjrld has accepted them -without, in fact, waiting for
ade‘quate confirmation of his results. This “ phigging ” of
ESP savemrs more of trade-advertising than of scientific
enlightenment.

Rhim ’s thn*e books. Extra-Sensory Perception —IIKM, New
Frofitiers of the Mind 1987, The Reach of the M/ad d947,
all written for th(‘ g(‘neral public, have this major fault —a
fault which rol)s them virtually of all serious value*. For
Rhine, concerned, it seems, more with the idea of selling
“ESP” and “PK”^to the lay public, casts all scientific

*■ Psychokinesis : the alleged ability of some individuals to influence
the motion of solid objects at a distance merely by “ willing.”

i^RiTK'is:^! or Amkhicak ESI* Expkrimentkrs 4:^7

caution to the winds and throws ‘‘ hu ts ” and figures around
in happy abandon, making little or no diserimhiation between
those (‘XjK rinu rits which are highly siispeet and those worthy
of respeet even judging by the low- standards of parapsyeho-
logy. WhetluT th(‘ expt rinuntal conditions are downright
bad or of an altogether higluT standard, tlu‘ rrsults of both
are accorded virtually ecpial validity. This same aj)proaeh
is to be se(‘n throughout th(‘ Journal of I^arapsycholofiy, and
one begins to wonder whether or not this kind of bins is accorded
to the aetuxil experimenU thewsclTVs, The ballyhoo which
surrounds parapsychology in the United States may well
be regarded as syniptornatie of tlir internal state of the
subject.

To view the modern ESP movement in true perspective,
one must realise that it is basically a cult a cult of the
supernatural in tee}ini(*al dress. Th(‘ perpetuation of all
such cults depends ultimately on irrational beli(*fs and the
ignoring or “ explaining away *’ of rationa' (Titicism. The
focus of inter(‘st must, in such cases, remain directed away
from th(* rational (‘lucidation of mysterious phenomena by
orthodox s(‘ientilie methods : where the scientist seeks the
solution of unexplai?ied (»ausal sequences by rational prin¬
ciples, the occultist or the j)arapsychologist falls back oi>
irrational supernatural agencies. Such an attitude, if the
rational scruples of the individual are to remain lulled, can
only be maintained by continued ignorance and wishful
thinking which, imidentally. is often evid(MK*ed in the strong
desire to convert others to tiu* beliefs so ardently luid.

All ev idc nce, no matter how^ unreasonable to tIu* careful
mind, is worthy of eonsid<Tation to the occultist. This
attitude is clearly relleeted in the journals of psychical
research, and (\s[)ecially in the \olumes of the Journal of
Parapsychology where (‘XjxTiments carried out })rivately
in individuals’ homes are accorded the same dcgr(‘e of impor¬
tance and validity as those carried out in the laboratory.

Tlirough the facade of scientific jargon there peep through
the pages of this journal hints of th(‘ informality of (experi¬
mental (‘onditions which belie the grave and teehnieal pre¬
sentation of so many of the imports, and nuike us w'onder
W'hat precisely w^ere the actual conditions of ESP and PK
experiments. More often than not there is a complete failure

43S

TiiK PsYrnoLO(;Y of tiik OcciM/r

to specify th(‘ (‘xaet eoiiditions during cH(*h particular experi¬
ment \vhi(‘h would enable us to gauge its \ alidity. Much of
this failur(‘ is due to ignorane<‘ of the many ways in which the
dissemination of sensory (aies can operate and a consequent
failure to jxTceivc* the type of safeguard neci ssary to (\\clude
them.

There is no evidence that a singh' KSP (‘Xperinicnter has
made a genuim* study of such factors as involuntary articula¬
tion, endophasic reactions, the unconscious dissemination
and reception of sensory cues, liypera(*uity of the scaises and
ideomotor reactions. Most KSP experinu iitcrs sccan to be
largely ignorant of the \ (Tv exist('nce of such pitfalls. The
Journal of Parapsychology has not devot(‘d a full arti(!l(‘ to
them sine(‘ it w^as lirst published, if ojie exclude s the report on
Ilga K by a (ierman ])sychologist, Ilans Bende r.

Many of the American KSP cxpeTinients particularly
Dr. Rhine’s earlier ones have been undertakcai in total
disregard of the most obvimis precautions against the opera¬
tion of sensory <‘ucs. So much is this the case that one
wonders why Rhine has !\ever retractiul his original claims
in regard to their v^alidity. Is it |x>ssibl(‘, \\v ask, that Rhine,
and all ESP experinumters who ac(‘ept his standards as valid,
are still ignorant of the possible w^ays in which sensory cues
may be conveyed to the percipi(*nt? The author’s personal
opinion is, that no KSP exp( rimenter is fully aware of the
difliculties inliercnt in KSP (‘xperinunts, where neither
distance nor lightj)roof and soundproof cabinets form part
of the exp(Timcntal situation, and where no autoinatic
recording apparatus is used. Thcs(‘ conditions an* almost
invariably absent from such experiments.

Where there exists ignorance of the diHiciiltics involved,
no measurers, of course, will b(‘ taken to d(‘al with them except
ineid(*ntally. This is n^vealed only too clearly by reading
some of tin* most impressive KSP (experimental r(‘ports.
One of the most serious cons(‘(}U(‘nces is that inforjnation
whereby we could assess corr<ecfly the validity of such experi¬
ments is (‘xcluded from the published reports of the experi¬
ments— a factor which virtually destroys their sci('/itilic
interest.

But perhaps th(‘ most damning factor prescait in the pages
of the Journal of Parapsychology is the all-pervading tendency

CUITK’ISM OK AmKKICAN ESP EXPKUIMKNTKKvS 439

to as c‘on(rIusiv(‘ ( xpcriincntal n suits which arc, in

fact, far from (‘stablish(‘(l, and whose th(M)rctical pr(‘iniscs
still remain blatantly m('taphysi(ral. Again (me ivonderfi haw
vmijch of this uncritical and comphurni attitude of ('asy accep-
Uince is carried into the c^periwenUd situation, P(Tha})s some
clue is provided by tlie almost complete^ lack of any evitlence
of pro^r(*ssive {dannin^ ov<t th(‘ last tif1(*(‘n ycMrs.

Thron^dioiit the Journal of Parapsychology th(‘re is 1<» be.
seen a ((‘iideney to str(‘ss tlie points favourabh' to telcj)at)iy
and clairvoyance, and a corresponding t(‘nd(*ney to gloss
over those more d(‘batabl(‘ points. Seldom is fair em])hasis
giv(‘n to th(‘ conditions of experiment or th(‘ ?nany other
s(‘eondary factors m‘eded Ibr a souml judgment e)n what has
actually bc‘en ])roved or dis})rov(‘d. Vet again it must be
ask(‘d whether this lack of seientilie detaehnKMit is present
during the conduct of the actual exjHTinu'nts.

The seii'iitilie world (‘an never a(‘(‘e])t the claims of para¬
psychology until it has been eonvin(‘ed of the genuine seienti-
lic abilitx of tin* parapsychologists theinselv(*s, and until it
is sure tliat the very highest seiiaditie standards have Ixaii
<*onsistently ap])lied. Ev(ai in those ver\ few ex})erim(‘nts
wluT(‘ the experimental conditions seem to reacdi tin* re(|uisite
standard, the n^ports will almost always provide (‘ollateral
evidence of bias, which throws doubt on tin' reliability or the
int(*llcetual integrity of the experimenter. In the reports ol
all th(* chief j)ropoiu*nts of para])syeholog>’ i»i the' Ihiited
Stat(‘s such (‘videnee is abundant, nor can any d(‘eeptiv(^
technological facade disguis<‘ the fact.

RhiiK's later exjxa'iments must be judged against the
background of those i*arlii*r ones whose validity is i*ntir<4y
vitia.t(‘d by glaring faidls in the experimental set-up and by
th(‘ (*asy-going supervision of thos(‘ who were mainly instru¬
mental in earrving them out. Why has he never retra(*ted
his (‘laims regarding tlie validity of those* experiments,
(‘specially in vi(‘W of the exc('ptionally higli scores so otten
produced ? Scores of twenty-live* eorre'Ct card guevsse's in a
row have b(*(*n recorded under the most absurd eonditmns
and lat(*r reporte‘d as evielcaicc ot extra-sensory p(‘rception.
Rut we shenild perhaps remember that leaders e)f pseudo-
sci(*ntifi(* cults an* lU'ver anxious to retra(‘t previous claims.

440

The Psychology of the Occult

for admissions ol‘ fallibility s|h 41 the ultimate doom of the
basic conc(‘})tions upon which the cult is based.

Tlie facility with which the American KSP ('xperimenters
have obtained evidence of extra-sensory ptTception leaves us
womhrin^r why mor(‘ orthodox scientists do not settle* the
issue one-e' and for all by rep<‘atin|j the* (*x}>erimc‘nts with the
same* results, liut e‘xperime*nte‘rs who de) nol ae‘e*e*j>t the
une*ritieal standarels adoptee! by Hliine* anel his eo-we)rkers ele>
ne)t <»btain siie*h j)rolific ewielenec of telepathy and elairvoy-
ane*e*. Within the narrow compass e)f Duke University
Ithine* claims that a lar^je pre)j)e»rtie)n of individuals were
found to pe)ssess tele*pathie or clairvoyant af)iiity. This has
It'el Iiiin to state* that the* faculty of e\tra-s(mse>ry peTeeptie)n
is wiele*ly elistributexk anel that elTc*e*tive KSP anel PK subj(*ets
may be* obtaineel withe)ut dillieTdty from among' a typical
cre)wd of me*!!, we)men anel ehilelre*!).

In some KSP experiments publishe'el in the* Journal of
Parajrsycholo^y it was report(*ei that e)ve‘r forty ])er e‘ent of the*
perse)ns tc*sted deme)nstrateei extra-sense)ry pere*c‘j)tie>n ! Yet
amot!g the* more* critie*al parapsye*hologi(*al e \'penmente‘rs in
England tlie* distril)utie)n e)f tlie extra-se‘nse)ry pere*e‘ption
faculty is belie*V(*el to be e*xtremely rare*, nor have they de-
te^etexl the* le*asf e*vielenee* e)f psyehe)kine‘sis—the alle*ge*d
mo\ e*me*i!t of e)bj(*e*ts by supernatural en* ])arauormal "
nu*ans. The e*ase with which the Vmerieaii experinientcrs
finel inelivieluals with supe*rnatural |)owe‘rs is in elire*e*t ee)n-
trast le) the* lindings e>f tlie Knglish e‘xperim(*nteTs wlie)se*
e‘Xi)e*rime ntal eoiitrols anel supervisie)iL to judge lre)m their
r(*j)e)rts,apjK*ar to be far striedeT than those of the Ai»ie*ri(%ans.

Ilhine* attributes the* English e‘xpe*ri!ne*nters' lae*k e)f
sue*ee‘ss te) the lae*k of a sympathetic e)r e!e)nge*nial atme)sphcre
fe)r the ESP percipient e)r PK agent ; but considering that
failure* often follows the lightening uj) of expe‘rim(*i!tal
controls in Ame rica, we may regard this ex[)lanation as a
piece* e)f e*onvenie*nt rationalisatiejii. Rliine and his e*e)-
worke rs attribute alme)st all failure in onc*e-suce*e*ssful subje*eds
te) psyelujlogical inhibitie)ns of one kind or aiiedher anel
selelonite)theelire*ef e‘ncctsof stricter controls and su])ervision;
the re aelcT must draw his own coneilusions.

The abundance of extra-sciisory perception in the United
State's anel its extreme scarcity in Clre*at Britain is

KiTiriSM OF Amfhioan KSP Expkrimfntkks 441

iiiuloiihtrdly due to the more Fflicirnt (‘xperimenta] controls
and supervision of the latter. Tlie claim has not yet been
iriad(‘ that the Americans an* a nation of natural psychics ”,
but this rnipht be a way out for tlu^ American j)arai)sycholo-
gists and is a claim whi(‘h would doubtless have interesting
repercussions !

A very great (h^al of the (‘ritieism levelled against Rhine
and his eonfren^s has been directed towards thtir methods
of statistical ( valuation. Ithim^ took up this ehallenge with
complete suec(‘ss and lias fully vindicated his claim that the
results of his (experiments cannot be attribuU-d to the opera¬
tion of chance alone. Ilis methods of statistical analysis
ar(‘ (*ssentially valid, but tlie arguiiKaits over th(‘ mathe¬
matical as])ects of KSF res(‘areh w(‘r(‘ for a long tiin(‘ success¬
ful in focussing attention away from the shortcomings of the
(‘xperimental f)ro(‘(‘dur(‘s themselves. Rhine hailed th(^
official a(*e(‘ptanee of his nudhod of statistical analysis as
a triumph for the cause* of ESP. Yet in fact the funda¬
mental position was uiudianged. For unless the actual
experiments wiTC projierly carried out, no mathematical
skill could j)rovide them with even the smallest degree of
validity. The arguments ov(T ESP mathematic’s were,
in fact, sonu'thing of a red herring, for there n(‘V(‘r had been
much doubt that the r(\suits attained by Rhine and other
KSP exjxrinu'nters wire due to causes oth(‘r than mere
chance.

The sann* red herring is fre(j|uenll> se(*n in the Journal of
Parapinjchoh)§fif wherein ivj)orts of experinuaits arc often ac-
eomj)anied by pages of probability mathematics and stati¬
stical cahailations (h^signed to show that the n sults attained
could not b(* attributable to the operation of chance. It
almost app(‘ars as if the ESP experimenters were trying
to j)ersua(i(* us of tlu* sci(‘ntific character of their pseudo-
scientitic experiments through an impressive exhibition of
mathematical A'irtuosity ! And certainly tiU‘V have been
quite successful in this atUanpt.

Many p(‘ople have undoubt(‘dly b(*en impress(‘d by the
primn facie sei(‘ntilic character of many of the reports in the
Jour'nal of Parapsychology^ with their tables of statistics
and the profusion of symlads pertaining to probability

442

TiIK Pv'^YC’HOLOdV OF TIIK Oc’OUI/r

niathcniati(*s. Probably few of its reacIcTs have realised
that th(‘s(* eru(ht(‘ Tnatlieniatieal [XTi^griiuitions are totally
irrelevant to the main <|uestioii at issue whether or not the
exjxTinients lhenis(‘lves liave been effieiently earried out.
In view of tli(‘ many reasons addueed for btlieving in the
unreliability of the AnuTiean KSP <'X|HTiment(Ts qua experi-
iiK'nters. we can only r(‘^arrl tlu'ir exet'lhad mathematieal
superstrueture as lar^n ly wasted ('Ifort so far as establishing
the existcaiee of extra-sensory per(‘(‘ption is eoneerned.

The unreliability <if the American parapsy(*hologists in
regard to KSP experiments, and th(‘ general t^xeellenee of
mueh of their statistical evaluations, might s(‘(‘m a ])aradox.
l^Lit the (Tusading ardour which the genuine believer in
extra-sensory jxree^ption brings to his (‘xperimenls arid which,
psychologically. sj)rings from th(‘ lure* of th(‘ mysterious
and th(‘ unknown, is also responsible for his attempts to
convince th(‘ scientific world of their validity. Here it is in
his interest to nurt the scientist on his own ground and
accept the rulings of tfui (‘xact scieiurs - rulings which were
glaringly and igiumudly transgressed during the conduct of
the actual (‘xperiments. In consequ(‘ne(\ the mathematie^al
evaluation of KSP experiuKaits has n^aelud a Ic^vel far b(‘-
yond what the standard of the (‘xperiments lh(‘mselv(‘s
warrant.

Since into the experiiiHaits of Dr. (lertrude S(*hmeidler
of \ew' York have' attracted th<‘ attention of parapsycholo¬
gists. She claims to have found that (‘xtra-sensory ])ercep-
tion is statistically demonstrabh* with numlxrs of subjects
chosen at random. Hy means of th(‘ Horseliaeh 'Pest she
divided her subjects into t^vo grou[)s peTsons who were
wn‘ll-adjusted and those' wdio were mal-adjuste*d to life* and
their <*nvironment. She found that the* (Uffcrcucv belw'e*en
the* sc'ores of tlu* two groups w^as statistically significant.
Hut as Soal has point(*(i e)ut, the odds against ])robal)ility
expectation elo not reach the figure* she has claimeel fe)r them,
since she se*le*eted luT associated pair e)f figures as being the*
one* w'hie*h she>ws the maximum elin'e re'iiere* out, e)f six pe)ssible^
pairsT "Sue’h a piece of evident axc-grineling doe*s ne)t give

‘ SfKil, S. G., The Kxperhuental Situation in Psijchical /{cscarch,
p. aa.

Variations and Dfa links in KSP 1-43

confi(l(‘nce in tlu* obj(‘ctivity of the* exporinirnfs theniselvos.
A point lik(‘ this nuiy r(*ve<il a ^or»(l (teal conrornin*^ the*
attitude ol the (*xperirneni(*r, for it is (iouhtful whetlier su<*h
a fortuitous sel(*etion could hav(* })(*(‘n due to inert* inad¬
vertence.*

Vakiaiions and Dkclinks in ESP SeoiUNo Hatks

Many KSP experiments have* been carri(‘d out with the
claiin(‘d intention of dist*ove riiig the efleets of sueJi stiimili
as rewards or ineentives upon the pe rcipients' paranormal ”
faculty. It ^ene*rally appe‘ar(‘el that with sueee'ssful per-
cipie^nts in(*entive*s and a (‘e)n^enia] atinosplu're* improved
the scoring rate, wliilst boreelom, fatigue* and distradin/^
influeMH^es lowe*re*d tliein. If p(*reepti<)n and e()rr(*et inteT-
pretatioii of sensory cues are re‘sponsit)le for the* successful
scores, the*re* is, of e'ourse*. holliinjyr surprisinj^ about such
findings. Where KJiine makes his most p(‘rniei()us cTror,
howT‘ve‘r, is in tlu* way lie inte-rprets the* subsexjuent failure
of sueH*essful j)e re*ipients

Lack of a congenial atmosjdiere. l)ore*elom, fatigue*, dis¬
traction, indispositiein, lack e)f (*e)ntideuee and iuhibitieius ”
are he*ld to account for such failure's (or for dro])s in tiie
scoring rate) even when it is perfe*ctly obvious that nuire
rigid (*xp(Timental (*onditie>ns are the* main e*ause. Extra¬
sensory peree‘])t ie)n, we are tedd, igneire's mere* physie*al
barriers ; it e*annot tlie re feire* be* aHected by extra pree;autie)ns
against se*nse)ry cues. When, the*refe)re, the* s(*e)ring rate
drops or vanishes in ce)nse*e]ue*ne*e‘ eif sue‘h |>re e*aui ions, this
must be* due to one e)f the* faelems e nume rateel above ; Q.K.l).

In any monotonous skilled task, suedi as type-setting or
ope^rating a tele*graj)hic morse*-ke*y, sue*h stimuli as re*warels,
change of subject matter, the approach of the* dinner he>ur,
new motivatiems eif alme)st any kind, will increase the
efiiciency eif the ope^rator. As(*he)tTen burg’s w(‘ll-kne)vvn
method of me*asuring such impre)veme*nts in tasks has bexai
useel in one* fe)rni or anotluT for over fifty ye‘ars. Again,

* A erritic Juis elainu’d, aflcr ^oiiig to press, tliat slic* was eiititieel
to sele-et lu*r ))air, .-is slu* had d<*e*idocl in advance* on tlw basis
of preliminary work wliich figure to take.

444

ThF. PSYCHOt^OCY OF THK Oc’OUFT

boredom, fatigue and similar factors all teiul decrease
the operator’s eftieienev.

During ‘‘ successful ” ESP expcTimcnts when the per¬
cipient is perceiving and interpreting, perhaps unconseiously,
minute sensory cues, v'ariations in scoring successes are
easily accounted for by orthodox psyeliological principles.
We have noted that the hyperacusic auditory sense* of tlu*
blind which is rcsj)oMsibl(‘ for detecting objects in their path
produces sensations which are located on the forehead.
Such sensations a ary greatly in scope and int(*nsity in the
same individual. Villey writes :

“ They ehaii»(‘ 'with tlic slijjhtesl variations oi* external (tonditions,
or ot* tlie physieal eoudition of the subject. The atrnosplieric state
sulfiees for inodifyiri" them considerably. Kati^jiie, a headache or
any pre-oc^ciipation will reduce them sometimes in irua'cdible pro¬
portions, Within two miriut<‘s of interval, 1 Jiavi* seen the same
subject perceive a ])lank that was bciiij^ held out for him at 90 <H*nti-
metres, and then not iK*reeive it at a distance of more tlian 85 or 40
centimetres, without anytliing tK*inji (‘hanj^cd, apparently, in the
conditions of the experiment.” ‘

The parallel of Villc*v’s experiment w^itli thos(* of the ESP
fraternity is too close lo be missed.

The experim(*nts in muscle-reading by lardianow an*
also of great interest in this (foimeetion. Tarchanow% wdio,
with F^rc, is credited witli the discovery of the psychogal¬
vanic reflex, carried out experiments in the detection a»id
interpretation of ideomotor movemt'nts, mainly by per¬
cipients who were permitted coFitaet with the agent only
tlirough the s(*fise of touch.

Sometimes eontaet was direct, at otlur tim(*s lh(*y were
eonn(*eled by a win* (»r chain. Tlu* ey(*s were usually
bandaged in order to allow^ the percipient maximum con¬
centration on tlie minimal variations in cutaneous and
muscular sensations due to barely perceptible pressures,
tappings, strokings and resistances. The only way to bring
about this maxirmim concentration, writes Tarchanow,* is
to divorce the attention from all other impressions which fall

* The World of the Blind, p. 104.

• op. <‘it.

VAlilAriOXS AND 1)1 :(’ LINKS rx KSP

445

ou tlu* other senses above all from tlu* distraeting visiial
iiiipn^ssioFis, wliieh stop the at tent io?) |)(*ing (*one('fit rated on
th(‘ d(‘sired seris(‘ impressions. I'he thought-reader tries,
during Ifie < \i)eri)nefit, not to tliink of anything at all and
abstains IVom all supjiosit ion, all (‘onjeeturc.

This ty})(‘ of eon(‘entration is often only achieved at the
expense of a great deal (jf ellbrt and may lead to subsequent
latigu(‘ and lu‘a(laeh(‘s. Sonudimes. says Tar(‘hanow, this
uniform and eojitinnons eoriecntration results in a gr(*at
iner(‘as(‘ in s(‘nsitivity of tin* mind and of tin* juuseular sense,
and throws some miisele-rcnders into a state very r(*minis-
eent of th(‘ first stage s of hypnosis in wlii(*h eonseiousness
still remains but tlie* acuteness of lhe‘ sens(‘s is sensibly
increased

Tareliauovv's obserxations are applicable to th(‘ d(‘te‘e‘tion
of seaisory cues by sighl and h(‘aring. If, as se^e nis probable,
some KSP percipients attain to this typ<‘ of (*onee*ntration,
it is easy to s(M‘ that the least distraction, l)or(‘doni or uncase
would upsel the el(‘liealc psye^hologieal )ialane*e, which in
turn would produe*c variations in the jxreipient's s(*oring.
Apart frou\ this, however, Tare‘hane)w's observations throw
real light on the* way in which KSP ])ereipients may re^aeh
a state of hy[)erse!isilivity to sensory impressions. The
minor trance state of inniiy ine*diums appevir analogous to
Tarchanow’s iiudhod of aehi(‘viug eoneentratinn through
banishing all irrelevant sensory stimuli.

Ill hypnosis loo. some sulijends may jH)sse‘ss abnormal
powers of attention, diserimination and subtle ratioeunation
far beyond that which their eonseious minds fan normally
evoke. It seems likc'ly that many a sn(‘e*essfnl KSP peT-
cipient is simply an individual who can attain, eilhe^r naturally
or with practice, to this medhod eif (‘once'utration.

Ae'cording io Rhine, loss of favourable* “ mental atmos¬
phereduring ESP (‘Xjieriimmts results in diminution or
disappearance of the* paranormal ” faeulti(*s. At all costs,
there^fore, the corre^et atmosphere must, he pre served. Isola¬
tion of the pereipieait or the introduction of mechanical
devices are! eonsexpicntly forbidden because* of the resulting
loss of atinosph(*rc II(*nce the need, says Rhine, to
preserve a large degree of informality in ESP and PK
experiments.

u()

The Psyciiolocy of the Occui/r

This insistence on infornnility, and the refusal to “ luech-
anise ” ESI* and PK (‘xperinients, inevitably results in the
exjXTiiiKMits remaining’ badly controlled. As lon^ as thes(‘
(H)nditions exist, it is only to be expected that ESP cxpcri-
nientcrs will continiu* to find tra(‘(‘s of suj)ernatural power
ill tlu'ir sid)jccts.

It would app(‘ar, according to Hhinc. tlial if the correct
“ mental atmospluTi' were luaintaiiH'd or ev(‘n improved
despite increasing rigi<lity of (‘xp(a*imcntal controls, no loss
of supernatural vision -for this is what the term extra¬
sensory p<'rci^ption amounts to would supervem*. But the
following investigation by Soal of a w(‘ll-known mediunrs
tehpathie and clairvoyant {>owers is a (*as(‘ in point when*
j'reeis(‘ly the opposite eflV'cl oeeurn'd.

In regard to the ESP cxpcTinuads of Dr. Hhim* tluTc*
is only one instanci* vvh<‘re a “ suc(*essful ” subject of liis has
been re-test(‘d by a totally independent investigator. Dr.
S. Ci. Soal lias a not und(‘S(‘rv(‘(l reputation, both in lOnglaiid
and America, as a competent and (*areful ESP ex[)erimenter.
Soal’s investigation ol* one of 11111110^ high-scoring pcTiripients
is worth att(‘ntion, if only because he has nevcT aceept(‘d
till* relatively lax standards of tin* Ameri(*an ESP experi¬
menters.

The subject in (pjestion was a professional m(‘(lium, Eileen
(iarrett, whom Rhine tiad tested for telepathy and clair¬
voyance, (inployiiig zener cards for the jmrpose. Rhine
reported tliat she averaged a total of approximat(*ly 5).5
co!T(‘ct eard-ealls per run of ‘-ia in telepathy tests, while in
elairvovan(;(‘ tests her averagi* totalled 5.(5 per run of 25.
During one three-day period her telepathy scores reached
the relatively enormous average of However, when

Soal subs(*nucntly tested hiT for evidence of tilepathy, her
scores showed an average attributable to cluinee alone.

Rhine himself tried to explain this anomalous situation
by using a stock rationalisation of the ESP experimenter,
namely, tliat in Soal’s tests with Mrs. (Jarrett the right
“ atmosphere ” was lacking, in whiidi case* all telepathic and
clairvoyant subjects invariably fail to give of their best.
Yet until she knew of the n^sults of Dr. Soal’s tests, Mrs.

Vaiuations and Dkcunks in KSP 44-7

Garrett lu rsclf believ(*d the tests to have been highly sueecNSS-
fiil. Her work with Soal, she f(4t, wus more likely to use
her own words to bring out her inediumistie eapabilities
than w^ould the Duke eonditions ”, while Soal recorded in
the spiritualist journaJ LiffhV : '‘Mrs. Eileen (iarrett ac¬
tually preferred niy mental atmospluTc* of passive^ expectation
to the emotional tension wdxieh sh(' states exists wdien
working with Dr. Rhine.”

Evidently it was not the question of an “ unfavourable
atmosphere ” which precluded the medium from obtaining
high scores but the known pretrautions which Soal takes to
obviate sensory cues, ev(ai though these* are by no ni(*ans
ail that th(\v should hv a point which will be* dealt with at
length in the next e*lia[)ter. Rhine has neve r rctraete‘d the
linelings of such high '' tele pathic ” capacity e)ver the three-
day perieid just re‘f(Trcd te), even though it must be* e)hvie)us
te) all who care* te) go into the que‘stion that the iTsults he
obtained do not rc({uirc the existence of any weirei super¬
natural faculty te) ae*ce)unt fe)r them. As with Ilga K. the
exclusion of sensory cue\s had, in Mrs. Garrett’s case also,
resulted in a failure to demonstrate any te*lepathic e*apaeity
whatsoever.

One may ha/arel a guess as to the primary reason why
parapsyehedogists elclibe-rately avoiel ttie study e)f se‘nsory
hyperacuity, afiet the* un(‘onscious prese*ntatie>n and reception
of sensory cues : suedv study woulel inevital)ly jee)]mrdise the
great majority of the)se ESP experiments which havej in the
past been reported as evidence of (*xtra-sensorv j)erception
and which still form the basis for contemporary ESP re¬
search.

It may be noted, in passing, that whereas the American
ESP experimenters have found an abimdance of clairvoyance
without the least dillieulty, the far mon* meticulous Dr. Soal
states that he has found no evidmee at all of clairvoyance
after testing over one hundred and sixty subjects ! His
two ace “ telepathy ” perfornuTs failed comjxletely to secure
when no one was looking at the target ciirds.

‘ 1988, p. 391.

448

The Psychology of the Occult

Recording-Errors in PK and ESP Experiments

Apart from the problems posed by the jiossibilitit^s of
hyperaciiity of the senses and the conscious or unconscious
dissemination of st^nsorv (‘ucs there is a very important
point to be considered. This is the (picslion of the recording
of the scores <)btained by the experimental subjects. It
has been argued that, although seiisory cues might luive
been largely responsible for the success of the ESP experi¬
ments, the ease for the results being due to the excTcise of
a sup(Tnatural or paranormal ” faculty is greatly reinfor(‘(Ml
by the rc'sults of th(‘ PK experinjcnts, for in the tatter the
objections zvhich pertain to the ESP e.rperiments have seldom
any relevance. This argument is (‘(Ttainly valid so far as it
goes. It is, however, easily desalt with.

Clearly the only common source of error between ESP and
PK expe^riments li(*s in the possibility of r(‘(‘ording-errors.
Furthermore, taking the PK experiments by themselves -
including the machine-thrown seri(\s -recording-errors are
the most likely source ol’ error whi(‘h eT))brae(‘s all types.
The question of recording-errors is tluTcfore very important.
If they are found to lx; indicated in the PK (‘xperirnents,
it will at once dispose^ of the formidable claim that PK
experiments reinforce tlu* (*ase for the existence' of a para¬
normal faculty as adduced from ESP exjxTiments, and
vice versa.

It has been reasonably well established that subcronsciously
rnotivatc'd scoring errors may, in simple experimental situa¬
tions, influence the experimental results according to the
attitude of the recorder tow\'irds ESP‘. Yet the (‘ompetent
Sells Conifnittee came to the conclusion that the experiments
of Kennedy on motivational-scoring could not be held to
apply to the more advanct'd of the Duke University and
other American ESP experiments*.

But the Kennedy experiments in motivational-scoring
are extremely relevant to PK tests, for here is an inherently
simple test-situation highly favourable to subconsciously

' Kennedy and UpJiolT, Experim^Ut on the Nature of Extra-Semory
Perception, III; The Jtecording Error (yUieism of Extra^Chanee
Scores, J.-Parapsych 1 3, 19*39, pp. 22G-245. Stanford Univers¬
ity Psychical Research Laboratory, Cornmimication No. 5.

■ J. ParapsychoL, 3, 1939, pp. 349-350.

Ri:(’()»m)in(;-Khi«)|{s ix PK and KSf*

inotivatocl scoring, 'riial sonic sii(‘h errors hav(; at; times
oeeurred in PK tests is patent. I'lu* pul)lisli(‘(l reeorcls of
Rhim‘’s own earliest PK exp(‘rimenls show t)ie Iiuge average
of over 5.5 ))er r\in against an expeetation of \\ Tliis is
extremely reminisec'nt of tlie ecpially huge snee.esscs in sonui
of tlie early Duke KSl^ tests siieeess(‘s whieh diminished as
time went on and as exjuTinaadal proeedun^ l)(‘(\‘im(‘ re-
la.tiv^(‘ly stri(d.(T. It still nanains a matter for sjx'enlalion
w'lu‘th(T th(* slack conditions whieh inspired th(‘ “ sueeessevs
of thi‘se (‘arly KSP and PK expcTinunts liavc (‘ver fxaai
(aitin ly obviated in “ sne(*(‘ssful " expiTinu nls carried out
at J3uk(* Ihiiversity I*ara.psy(*hology Laboratory in later
years.

The existence of KSP recording iTror.s is not only to be
inferred from Dr. Kennedy’s ( xperimenls. They have be'cn
det(‘et(‘d and reported in all honesty by Martin and Stribie
in their experiiiKaits at Colorado tlniv(Tsity, and also by
Macdarland.

In the Sliarp-Clark KSP experiments the students were
I)ermitted to do their own cheeking with their giursses in one
column and the correct card-order in anothiT. both (columns
being on the same sheet. Such exju riments of course*, haul
theanselves to rc‘cording-errors and should neveT hava* been
reported a fact wliicli should >)e more than apparent to
the exp(‘riinentcrs themselv(‘s. It is truly surjirising how
individuals of considerable aeadeanie distinction, members
of university faculties, apperar unable to obs(‘rve the most
elementary precautions in the conduct of (‘Xfieriments.

In another series of 10,000 KSP trials carried out by Dr. C.
li. Carpenter, Fellow in l^syehology, and Dr. 11. R. Phalen,
Professor of Mathematics at Rani College, Columbia Uni¬
versity, “ conlinYiatory ” results of KSP were obtained, b\it
h(TC again th(^ scoring nudhod was at fault a fact which
they quite correctly pointed out. In this ease flu* jK‘reipi(‘nt
himself read back to the experimenter tlui eorr(‘C‘t order
of the cards for checking purposes. He had in full view his
own guesses on the record-sheet and he w^as (‘vaaituallj'^
detected making an (*rror ” favourable to his own score.

Whilst a number of experimenters have bi‘c‘n honest,
enough to point out the occurrence of recording-errors, w(i
• J. ParapsycJioL^ 7, pp. 20-ia.

450

Tiik Psychology of the Occin/r

have HO means of learning whether all KSP crusaders, most;
of whom are amateurs, are likely to be so scrupulous;
nor can wc ascertain whether they always succeed in dis-
covering that such errors liav(‘ in hict occurred at all. Aft(T
weeks, perhaps months, of sincere work, the dis(*overy of
a, few' scoring errors may wdshfully disposed of as irrelevant.
The greater the crusader’s ardour in the cause* of KSl* and
PK, the more may w'c expe*ct this tend(*n(*y io lx* exagge raie'd.

The question of scoring-errors in many of the IxttiT-
controllcd KSP exjierinuiUs is, according to the Se lls Com¬
mittee, largely irr(*l(‘vant. It is signilicant, how'cver, that
they have been obser\ ed and r(‘por!(‘d by KSP experi!nent(*rs
thems(‘lv(‘s. K\(*n though motivational-scoring may be
regard(‘(l as an ini])ossibility in soim* of tin* more compl(‘X
KSP ('XjK'rimental situations, tlu* sim})l(‘ PK c‘xp(‘rinH‘ntal
situation allows full scojx* for sii(*h tendenci(‘s. It is in
relation io the PK (Wperitnenis that tlx* Kemudy exp(‘rim(‘nts
in subconseiously motivated r<*eording-tTrors have* most
signilican(*e. The scorer usually knows which face* of tlie
di(‘e the subj(‘ct is “ willing ” u]>])ermost and it w^ould be
the sim])lesl thing in the world for him involuntarily to
make slips favourable to the score of the PK subj(‘(‘t.

In th(* average PK experim(*nt there is no eih'ctive way
of checking the scor(‘r’s figures unless a second ind(‘pendt‘nt
scor(*r k(‘cps a record at the same tinie, and eve n this arrange-
m(*nt has its owm obj(*ctions if the scorers arc* within sight
or h(*aring of each otluT.

Much of the evide nce ” for PK, or psychokinesis, re'sts
upon the w idely trumpeted position e flV'erts ”—“ declines ”,

saliemce ”, and the re\st. Such statistical configurations
are unlikely to be* due to the vagari(‘s of clianec. But this
fact alone scarce*ly justifiies their b(*ing attributeHl to the
ebb and flow of the PK age nt’s supernatural or i)aranormal
powers, or to the all(‘gcd “ laws ” governing these* powx*rs.
The y are far more likely to be due te) spe)ntan(*e)us variations
in the degree to whicli unconseaous motivational se*e)ring“
errors are ope'rating. During control-tests, of course, the
motive responsible for the tendency to error-bias we)uld
naturally be abse*nt.

Yet even if it were supposed that the results of tlie Ameri¬
can PK experiments were not due to scoring errors, these

RE(’()RI)IXfi-ERRORS TN PK AXI) ESP

451

cxpcTirncnts, taken as a whol(\ an* far from eoiivincing.
More often than nol they are (*,arri(*d out by amateurs in
private houses instead of in the laboratory ; obviously no
a<lequate supervision is to be expect(*d.

V(ry fre(jU(*ntly it is reported that the PK subject is
allowed to choose which die-faee he wishes to “ will ” upper¬
most. It might b(* exp(‘eted tliat enthusiastie amat(‘urs
dabbling (unknown to themselves) in the oeeult occasionally
see which die-faec* turns up most frecpiently before^ “elioosing”
it. Th(^ six-face has geriierally be(‘n the fav'ourite (choice ;
and it fre(ju(‘ntly obliges the amat(‘ur sorccTcr by |)roviding
evidence of psyehokiiU‘sis ” ! Scoring errors are likely to
i!U*rease this psychokinetic elfeet

It is remarkable that searc(‘ly any PK expcTinients have
been re])orted when‘ all six faces of th(‘ die ha ve been nomin¬
ated as tlu* target-face ” an ecjual numb(‘r of times. Al¬
most invariably the su))jeet’s choice of target-face has been
the over-riding factor, ost(*nsibly on tlu‘ grounds that if he
is allow'd to choose the* face about which he felt most
eonlident of sue(*ess, the less would his natural inhibitions
r(*tard the ('lT('ctiven(*ss of his psyeliokinetie powers. The
six-faec‘, having six (*aviti(*s, is the lightest, and would
normally turn up more often than the otliers ; this may be
the dominant factor in tin* choice* of most PK subjects.
The relat ive* lightn(*ss of the six-faei* would naturally ae(*(*ntu-
ate any tendency to recording error-bias, while comparison
with control experiments (without th(* error-bias motive
operating) could still reveal a statistically signilicant dif-
fer(*n(*e betw(*en the two types of experiment.

The overall jiicturc of American PK experiments gives
an impression of amateurishiu'ss and lia})liazardn(*ss which
bcli(*s their grave t(*chnical presentation in tlu* publish(*d
reports. Another factor which (*omiK‘ls us to dismiss them
is th(* fact that outside America PK (*xperiments with dice
have fail(*d entirely to (*orroborat(‘ the findings of Rhine
and his eonfrer(*s. The findings of tlu* Englisli PK experi¬
menters are particularly relevant in this respect.

Brief though this rc'ference to PK has been, it has been
(*nough to show that the “ paranormal ” interpretation of
ESP exp(*rimcnts receives little sujiport from PK experi¬
ments. The argunu'iit that only t he hypothesis of a “ para-

452

Thk Fsycmiolocy of tiik Oc cri/r

normal ” rnciilty could account for both tlic all(‘^cd KSP
and FK cilVcds. on the grounds that Die objections which
nii^ht be luld b) o})erale against it in tlie on(‘ ease* an‘
inn])plicabl(' as r(’<^^ards lh(‘ olluT, is S(‘en to lx* invalid.
Sucli a.n ar^unu nt could only b(‘ re^ardetl as valid if the FK
cxperiimiits th(‘nis(‘lv(‘s vvcr<‘ conclusive.

It is highly unlik(‘Iy ihat the* seicritilie world will r(‘f>[ard
th(' American FK ( xpc riiiKads as con(*lusiv(‘ proof of super¬
natural ur “ paranormal " facullies, until avitomalie recording
fl(‘vic(‘s ar(‘ used during tlu' (‘X]H‘rinK‘ids.

As lonj^ a^o as tin? JVedessor L. T. Troland rcalis(‘d tlu*
n(‘cessity of a mcclianically operat(‘d n eordc r as a niinimal
comlition in l<iSF (‘Xjx riments, and aclually conslru(‘f(‘d one.
llis aim was to eliminati* the jKTsonal ecjual.ion of the
rcs(‘archer so far as it could relh‘ct advcrst ly on th(‘ validity
of lh(' cxpcTimcnt. Hhine’s ar^unuad for not followini^
IVoland’s (‘xcellent cxamj)le is tliat undt r sucli impcTsonal
<'()nditions th(‘ t(‘l<‘j)atliic or clairvoyant subjccft b(‘(H)nK*s
inliibibal. The speciousn(‘ss of such an ar^uin(*nl is not
dillicult to appreciate. Kven if “ inhibition wen^ a cof^cad.
reason why f()olj)r()of (‘xperirncntal conditions ar(‘ not per-
inissibl(‘, it would be utterly UvS(*lcss on sucdi grounds to
expect tlie sci(adafi(‘ world to ac(‘cpt as valid tlie cxjxTi-
mcrdal results tlius jjrained, still less any speculative theories
based upon them. It would always be reasonable to attri¬
bute tlu* results to faulty experimental conditions in
prefereiua* to specadativc metapliysieal theorit's which, in
th(‘ (*y(‘s of many, amount to nothing less than a. recrude-
scense of ])rinutiv(‘ superfiatural belief.

The automatic recording of KSP tests is simply enough
arrang(‘d, y(*t in not one of the “ successful experiments
of Rhine or his colleagues at Duke University Farapsycho-
Iogi(.*al I^aboratory has such a <levice b(*cn us<‘d. With the
dice-tlirowing exj)eriments more expensive* recording-ap¬
paratus would be r(‘qiiired, involving the use eitlier of an
automatically operated camera or else a specially (onstruct(‘d
device, as for (‘xample, radioactive paint on the “ spots ”
on the dice used in conjunction with a photo-electric cell.

The* neglect to provide the most accurate experimental
conditions rellects on the scientific ability of the workers
in Duke University Parapsychology Laboratory. It may

CONCT.USIOK

458

<^ven bo asked whether this nc^jk^et has been deliberate.
Were automatic rceordiiij? machines ever used in PK experi¬
ments and the results found d(‘l(‘terious to the production
of posiiiv(‘ scores ? Has the (‘fTeet of comj)lete isolation
upon KSP percipients in fact been tried out and th(‘ experi¬
mental results withheld froru jniblieation because of the
negative scores obtained—f)n the specious grounds that the
experiments furnished no further light on (‘xtra-s(*nsory
peree'ption and were therefore !\ot worth reporting?

The perpetuation of casual e xperimental conditions a})j)ears
to be the sifie qwi non of successful KSP and PK experi¬
ments ; many might interpret the persistent avoidance of
foolproof experimental techni(juc‘s as an indication that
at least soirn^ of the staff of the Duke Unive rsity Parapsy-
cliology Laboratory ar(‘ not altogether unaware of this.
Whether or not this is so, it is at least eertain that in normal
scientific research the continuaiuc of sueh an anomalous
situation could never have Ixcn toleralid without the
strongest (!(?nsure being direcled upon both the ex])eri-
menters themselves and upon any University which had
sanetioneel for so kmg the cemtinuancre of sueh elubioiis
experinu'iits.

('oNcaaTsioN

The American experiments in extra-sensory peree‘j>tiou
aiul psychokinesis cannot be rc'garde'd as of any serious
scieaitific intcre^st. This is mainly hceause the experimeaiters
themselve*s e*ast suedi doubt upon their own titne^ss to (*arrv
emt the e'xperimetnts, througli the patent lae*k of objectivity
which is tiverywhere' e)bservable‘ in their publislurl reports
and papers. In this respeert Dr. Rhine hinise^lf is the ediief
oflender.

The continual stream e)f propaganela and special ple^aeling
cemducted by Rhine wath all the v.vst e>f a se‘lf-dise»overeei
pre)phet do not supply the best eronelitions for seaentific calm
anel judgment. Nor do sueh luethoels inspire inue^h cem-
fielence in the intellectual inte'grity of those responsible. In
the bias e)f the reports anel article's, in the glossing-e)ver
of unfavourable and eiebatable pe)ints, in the fae'ile e‘e>nclu-
sions and naive* thexrising, in the vague me'taphysical

454

Thk Psycholocy of the Occui.t

speculations, in tlie casting of results into a mould of pre¬
conceived ideas, in tlu^ a(‘c(?plance of results as conclusive
which fail to iind eonlirniation elsewhere, in the placid
acceptance of badly controlled or even uncontrollable ex¬
periments, in the deliberate ignoring of tlu' possibilities
ce)utiugcut upem seuseiry hyperacuity anel the inve)luntary
dissenunatie)n e)f se*nse)rv cue\s, in the basie* aeH!cptane*(‘ of
supernatural causation- in all these' we' se'e* e)verwhelming
signs eif se'lf-eleeeption anel wishful thinking and an inability
te> exeTcise critical judgme'nt.

All these' facte)rs tlirow the gravest doubts e)n the reliability
of Ithine’s })arapsye'he)le)gie*al e'xpe'rinie'iits and e)f those* who
ae'cept his standarels ; for these same factors reflect an attitude
of 'utiud u'hieh ree have no reason to assume would have been
absent in the actual eonduei of the eaperimenU themselves. If
this is so, IK) arneiunt e)f te‘ehnologie*al argument will av^ail to
persuade us of the valielity of e*ither the KSP or the PK
('xperiments.

In one! volume'' thirty-five* se*j)arate argume'uts against
the validity e)f ESP experiments were stateel anel answere d
wnth varying degrees e)f success. The ei^e criticism which
the* autheirs negle*e*teel te) answcT fully was the ejiu'stie)?! of
the re'liability of the e'xpeTime'ute'rs themselves, fe)r in the*
final analysis the aeee])tane*e e)r ne)n-ae‘e*e‘plane*e' of the
exjierimental results re volve e)n this very point.

Anothe*r vital ejiu'stion whie*h was far from satisfacteirily
elealt with was the* ejuestiein e)f senseiry hyperaemity anel the
une*onse‘ie)us prcsentatiein of seiise)ry cues by the telepathic
age*nt, the e'xpeTimental supe*rvise)r, or his assistants. The*
e)bvie)us igneiraiie'c eif the peissibilitie's aflVirele^ei by su(*h means
uneIoubte*elly ae*e*ounts feir a very large part e)f the* iieisitive* ’
expe*rime‘ntal results achieveel anel is e)ne* re*ason why the
autheirs of Eatra-Sensory Perception after Sijcty Years we re*
unable to ele'al with the epiestion. I'hc mainte'nane*e of
ade'ejuate safeguards presupjieiscs a prior knowleelgc e)f the
contingencies to be* guareh'el against.

There is only one* papeT in all the veihunes of the Journal
of Parapsychologoy whie*h deals objectively with the jiroblems
of hype'racusia and the unceinscious disse*mination eif senseiry

* Exlm-Sensory Perception after Sixty Years.

C’oxri.usioN

155

cu(‘s. This reportwas not written l>y nii American j)ara-
psychologist l)iit hy a (icrnian, Dr. llaiis Bender, and al-
tho\igli it a})]H‘ared as lon^ as eleven years aj^o ils lessons
were lost upon Rhine and his (*o-workers. V(‘t the
jiaramount importauee of these* problems to (^xpcrifuental
research in extra-sensory perception is ^larinyly obvious.
Researeli into sueli (juestions is tlu* logical first st(*p of any
inv(‘sti<^ation into (‘xtra-sensory perception. The ne^lcet
of so vital a {)i(‘ee of res(‘areh represents a first-class indict¬
ment of tlie outlook and abilities of parapsyeholo^j^ists the
world over.

Otlurs have criticised individual KSP (xperiments on
grounds of motivated scoring errors, faulty shuHling of the
cards, eorresj)ondenee of mental habits, rational inference,
o})tional sto])ping, invalid methods of statistical evaluation,
and on itiany otluT grounds. In the main. liow(*ver, the
** successful results of ESP experinu*nts cannot be attri-
but(‘d solely to such ty])es of error as these. Faulty sliuflling,
admittedly, imay sometimes be a source* of tlie '' position.
(‘ITcct ", just as irr(‘gularities in tlu* dice* and in the* manner
of throwing mav lx* the (*ause of ‘‘ position efteeds " in PK
t(‘.sts.

Yet it is o?i tin* (|uestion of sah‘guards against sensory
cues that idl ESP <‘xj)erimenters an* shown to be at fault.
S()}ic of tliem aj)j)ear to have studied this problem seriously
and tlieir claims to have “ obviated " all seiisory cues is
often pathetic in its naivety and (‘vident sincerity. Pathetic
too is their mueli advertisc‘d confidence that only j)arapsy-
ehologists can fully a])j)reeiate the j)robl(‘ms raisenl by the
exclusion of sensory cues in the ESP exp(*rimental situation.
It is perliaps significant that nearly all the* competent work
on this important (juesliori lias been carried out by in¬
dividuals who were not parajisyehologists at all.

* The i'asv of !tffa K : Heport of a Pheunmmou of Vnusnnl Perception^
.1. Para|)sycJi »l, 1938.

Chaj>ier Ticenty-Seven

THE TEJ.ErATny EXPEllIMENTS OF I)h\ S,a. SOAL

riiis s'i a(;k it is (Usirablr lluit we slioiild cfitt r into :i
({(‘tailed eriti<‘al analysis of an irnj)ortant series of ESP
experiments. This honour, for several oood reasons, has
f)e(‘n reserved for tlu* w<‘ll-kr)o\vn inv(‘sti^ations into pr(‘-
eo^nitive t(‘lej>atliy e(»n(hiet(‘d hy Dr. S. (h Soal.‘ This
series of experiments is ^(‘fierally (‘oneeded to l)(‘ th(* jnost
eo^(‘nt of all the evidence brought forth to suhstantiatc
th(‘ theory of traiise(‘n(lent;il mental ])ro(*(‘ss(‘s in mankind.
In vi(‘\v of Dr. Soaks n jaitation for painstaking |)atiene(‘
and llu* e1aborat(‘ lengths to which he has o‘()n(‘ to obviate
sensory enes. many ju-ople int(Testt‘d in psyehi(‘al r(‘s('areh
believe* that the proof of a transeen(l(‘ntal faeidty in man
stands or falls by these experiments (whieli are by far and
away the most intere'stin^ and eonviiuan^ of all ESP exp(Ti“
ments carried out in America or En^lancl). As has already
been noted, these same exp(‘rim(‘nts j^ained for iJu‘ir insti¬
gator from Eondon University tlu* degree* of Doctor of Seienee.

Sme(* tile Soal experiments r(‘pr(*sent a v(*ritable bastion
pcTpet Hating belief in transeendental or supernatural
fa(*ulti(*s of the mind, it is fitting that tlu* main critical
analysis sho\ild bi* reserved for them. The n^ason why
Soaks exjxriments a])j)ear so impressive prhrui facie is
(contained in the apparcfitly ine plicabU* (‘Icmc'nt of pr(‘Cog-
niti(»n which eharactcrises them thro\ighout.

A hy])othesis of genuine prophetic faculty has hitluTto
s(‘(*me(l the ordy way of explaining the curious (*xp(‘riniental
results obtaiiu’d. The apparent ])rophetic faculty of Soaks

^ ScKil jjiid (iol<lrr*y. Experiments in Preeognitive Telepathif, I'ro(rocclinf»s
of* till* Deceniher, 194a, pp. 21-1.50.

450

TKi.Kr.xTHY Kxpkjumexts of 1)h. S. (r. Soat^ 457

percipi(*nt aj)pear(*(l (juite uiiexpcetcdlj, and was hailed,
not only as an excellent deiuonstration of the trans(‘endental
powers of the mind, hut as a final safepruard against the*
possibility of the experimental results being brought about by
the operation of sensory cues.

What, it was asked, can rationally aeeount for the fact
that one man can cognize what is ahout to enter tlie mind of
another throughout thousands of tests, wlum all sensory
em‘S are excluded ? This is tlie situation which has liitherto
faced th(‘ sceptics, l^Yaud or collusion may be an answer,
but this liypotliesis is (‘xtrem(‘ly unlikely. The records of
th(‘ expeTinuaits togc tlier with their statisti(*al analysis may
eonfid(*nlly be a(‘(‘epted as valid. I’he only rpK stion invoiv(*d
is what inter])retati()n sliould be given to the (‘xpt.Timental
resuKs? It is this (juestion which will be dealt with at
kaigth in tht* following pag(‘s.

W( may say lien* and now that Soal lias overlookc‘d e(Ttain
|)ossibili(ies in regard lo the transmission of sensory cues
from age nt to j)erei[)ient ; whil(‘ guarding efV(‘etively against
sensory eiu‘s occurring betwecai two individuals, h(‘ over¬
looked tlicfact that, what may a])j)earto he imjK)ssible betw(‘(‘U
two jHTsons may well b(‘ possible when thr(‘(‘ are invoh ed.

One reason has alrca<ly b<*en given why Soal’s (‘xperiments
have bc(*n chosen kir a detailed critical analysis. Anotlier
very important n'ason for the choice is tliat we have felt
obliged to dismiss the ex{)erim(*nts of Dr. Rhiiu* and liis
AnuTican confr(*r(*s as unaceeptabk' on collateral evidence
(»r bias and tei\<leuti()usness. The evidence of partisan
j)rcjudice in tlu* selection, jirescntation and iutiTpndation
of (‘xp(Tim(*ntal ri'sults is so overwlielming, that we eaimot
h(‘lp i)eli(‘ving such a bias to have birn jiresent in the cx-
jKTiments themselves. In the ESl^ exi)crim(‘nts of Dr.
S. (i. Soal, a matluMuatics teacher in London IhiivaTsiU,
this jiresentational bias largely disappears, although it can¬
not be said to be altogether absent. Soaks reports do offer
groun<ls for confidence in their obj(‘ctivity and therein lies
their importance ; for (*ven though tlu' theory ” of tele-
{)athy is shown to be unnecessary, thcs(‘ investigations
undoubtedly repre‘scnt an interesting addition to the body
of knowledge acepiired by experimental psychology, and as

158

Tin: Psvrnoi.ocY of tiik

such they an* jierhajis wortliy of the reeognilion wliieh Soal's
own university has Ix'stowed on him.

SoaVs exjxTiinents were experiments in t(‘t(‘j)athy. Tliat
is to say, they were earried out to t(‘st a theory tliat one
human mind could interact dir(‘Ctly witli an<»ther in sonu*
kind of way other tlian through tlie senses. The term

mind as is so often found in psycliical reseanli and
nu'tapliysical sp(‘culation, remains nnd(‘fined. Tlu* mind,
furthermore, is a ]iypotlu*ti(‘al assum])tion in its own ri^lit ;
so that in telepathic tlieori(‘s generally w(* find we arc* usin^
iivo speculative liypoth(*ses, each of whi(‘h n‘mains indefin¬
able in any seientilic sense*, for the* simple* r(*ason that th(*y
are basically meta]>hvsieal eon(*e]>ts.

In SoaTs experiments, as in the usual run of ti*l(*pathie
(‘xp(‘rim(*nts, the sensitive " or ]Hreipic‘iit *' had to jjrucss
the symbols or pietur(*s in a pack of cards uj)(»n which
allotlier person known as the* a^(*nt ' was tixin^ his ^aze.
1'his ty])e of exjK rinu'nt is very diHerc nt from most of those
undertaken by Dr. Rhine and the* Aineri(*an KSI^ (‘\peri-
m(‘iit( rs, who concentrated mainly on a ‘‘ elairvoyanee
type* of test wliere tlu* ])ereipienrs suj)))osc*d sujiernalural
faculty is cxjxc'ted to helj) him identify the cards in (|U(*stion
without tlie aid of an(»th(*r mind Soal liimsc*lf lias
found no (*videnee of clairvoyance* in his own (*\j)erinu*nts.

As lias alr(*ady b(*(‘n mentioned, Soal was granlt‘d a. Doctor
of Sei(*nce de^r(*e by London I'liiversity for his invest illations
in telepathy. Further, in PUT the* (’entral Rese*arch Fund
of London Ibiive-rsity awardeel Jiim a mone*y j^rant for the*
continuation of this work and for tlie* ])urchase‘ of apparatus.
To many, ineluelin^ the* jm-sent writer, it would appear as
if one* of our j|rre‘atest univc*rsiti(*s is not only condoninjjf but
active*ly assisting in the* furtlicrance* of occult be*lie*fs and
prae*tices. It is use*le*ss to iirj^e in reply that even it* the
te‘l(‘j>atliie* “ tlieorv *' is of no mate*riai (‘onseepience*, the*
(*xpe*rimenls ami tlie* results achieved may very easily staml
by themselve s ; for the fact remains tliat if a purely rational
apjiroach had be*en tried from the be*<^inninf^, the* f*ourse of
the experiments would inevitably have been ve*ry dill'er(*nt
from the one that they actually toeik.

The* Soal e*xpe*riincnts were lirst and foremost elesi^neel
to establish snvntificalhj the validity of a purely mctaphysicdl

Tklkpathy Kxperimknts op Dr. S. G. Soai. 4.51)

concept. Such a thiny is, of course, a total impossit)ility.
And yi^t this was in fa(‘t the animus which inothatcd the
expcrinients. It is (juite reniarkahle that certain univ(Tsitics
in Kngland and America should he dealing out (h^yn'cs and
doctorates on tlie basis of wliat art* no more than (*x(*ursions
into the otrult.

By llKil) Soal had been t‘\perimentin^ in eard-gu(*ssing
experiments for ovtr four ytars in an att(‘mpt to find con¬
firmation of th(* prolific siie(‘esses in “ extra-st nsory pt rec])-
tion ” j)ublish(‘d by Illune and otlu rs at Dukt* rniversity
in America, lit* liad testt^d 100 dilTertad subi(‘els and had
recorded 12S,00() ^uess(‘s williout tlu* least indication of
anylliin^ that could even bt* hypotlietieally attributed to
exlra-ser»sory pere<‘j)tion, ami was lH‘^innin^ to arrive* at
the conclusion that the tpicst was a dead-end. The ^veat
si^nificanet* of these four yt^ars of ncerative ESP tests is that
it (‘stablislu's Soal s hone fides as nothing cisi* could. It
b(‘ars witn(‘ss to his pati<aiee, integrity, and a high standard
of exjKTinuaital e()ntr(»l which is unusual in tlie general run
of ESP experimentation.

Soals' patience. Iiowc vcr, had its re ward. Another ESP
ex])erimcnter, IVhately Parington. mentioned that lu* had
found (‘videnee of displacc'iiu'iit and pressed Soal to
undertake* tlie task of elu'cking through his own records for
this same (*fl‘(*et. “■ Displace'nu'nt m(*rely means that the

records of the* ESP sid)jee-t she)w a tenelene*y for the latteT to
guess correctly, not the* card that he was supposeel te» be
guessing, but eithe*r the* e)ne befenv it eir the one* folleiwing it.
Out e)f I no subje*ets which Send hael te‘sl(*el, Ihe reeeirels eif
two e)f the*m siiowe*el marke'el cviele‘ne*e* e)f the }>ere*ipie*nts
having seore*el above* e'hane*e on the carels which cither [)re*-
ceded e)r folle)vve*el the* targe t e*ard eluring e*ae*h run of guesse's.
Some of these*. dis]>laccment ctTccts arc really puzzling ; for
while the backwarel elisplacemeiit ” e*an be readily attri-
bute*d te> a ele‘lay e>f twe> e>f three se*cemds in uttering the name
of the* e*arel (the iele nlity of whie*h has be*en eonveyeel un-
conscie)usly by semie* le^rm of articulatiein), the "" forward
disj)lae*e*me‘nt ” is ne)t so easily accountcel feir. This fe)rward
disi)la(*e*ment, i.e. the e*e)rr(*ct guessing of the* e*ard about to
become the target-card as rt^vealed by subse*e]uent analysis,
has until re*ccntly ele'fienl e‘xplanatie)n.

4()() Tjik Psy(’ii()1.(>(;y ov tiik Ocvult

When Soal had arduously checked througli the score
sheets of his IGO subjects atid found two who appeared to
reveal the displae(‘ruent efTeet in their re(‘ords, lie instituted
a further serii‘s of telepathy experiments with one of them,
a Mr. Basil Sluiekleton, to S€*e whether he would continue
to demonstrate the same mysterious phenomenon of forward
displaeenient. Over a period of two years, in t(\sts involvin^^
thoUvSands of card ^uessi's, it was found that Shaekleton
maintained consistently his ability to ^tik^ss the card whieli
was about to become the target-earil. Soal took precautions
to guard against anyone pn^senl becoming aware of what the
card ahead was goiiig to be, and (to illustrat* the eneetiv(‘-
ness of liis safeguards) liere is a bri(‘f account of the method
used in one of th(‘ principal types of (‘xperiment.

Th(* so-eallt^l ‘‘Mele[)athie agent" was sedated in a room
behind a box-like ser(‘en. In front of him lay live different
(*ards in a row face downward. We may call them A. B,

I) and E. An assistant expcTimenter on the ()th(r sirh* of
the screen lu^ld a bag containing 200 eountcTs of live different
colours in e(jual amounts. Ev(‘ry two se(‘()nds or so h(‘
thrust his hand into th.e bag. to(»k hold of a (‘oloun^l eount(‘r,
and h(‘ld it up at a small aperture cut in th(‘ s(T(‘en. The
agent, observing tlu* colour of the disc, immediately turru'd
up the corresponding card from his row of live dilferent
cards, giving it a lirief glance as he did so. This was the
“ target-card th(‘ identity of whi(‘h Shaekl(‘ton, out of
sight in tile next room, was to try and guess. It will be
seen that by this arrangement a random order of targe t-
eards was produe(*d hy the assistant experimenter for tlie
agent to transmit.

The agent’s five* cards were shulll(‘d at tht‘ begiiming of
eaeli series of t(*sts in order to pri'clndt' the assistant experi¬
menter, who lield th(* counters, from gaining knowledge of
their order. So that, although the assistant experimenter
was responsible for giving tlu' verbal signal to Shaekleton
next door whenever he blindly produe(‘d a eoimter out of
the bag, li(‘ never knew which card wnis the target card.
I'he arrangement also {)rovided an excellent method of
producing a random distribution of targ(‘t-eards without
anyone present having any idea concerning which card was
to be turned up next. An “ observer ” took down the

TkJ.KPATIIY KxPKKIMKNTS OI' I)f{. s. (i. SoAI. MM

order of tlu* target eanis as tlu* exj)eriin(’nt pro^rc'ssed,
while a sc'eond ()l)s(‘rv(‘r vvat(*he(l Slia(‘kIeton as he re(*orde(l
his yiiess(‘s.

Tli('se aiTani»(‘ineuts, as may 1)(‘ seen, wen* av(H llioiififlit
out. Kv(‘n so. fiirthiT (‘ontrollin^f conditions \ver(‘ imposed
by the resuils ol’ 1lu‘ experiments wliicli sliowrd tlie mysteri¬
ous pr('eo<rnitive trend. For what Shaekhton in laet
appeartd to tx* doini”‘ was to show a. marked and consistent
tendency to ^niess eornctly tlie card whieli was about to be
turn(‘<l u]) and which neitluT tlu* a^ant nor the assistant
(‘Xj)(‘riment(‘r wen* aj)par(“ntly in t!i(‘ slightest de^ret* capable*
of i'or(*eastinjr. The tnajority ot these* and similar e‘xpeTi-
ments el(‘nionstrate*el this pre‘<‘o<rnitive elleet to suedi an
exte'iit that e\'aluation by (lu* e*ale*ulus f)f‘probability s]K)VV(*d
that the* exlels ayainst eliane*e‘ alone |)roduein^ sue’h a n sidt
lies in the ama/any ordeT of to 1.

Ve i most st‘ie‘ntisis an* unlik(‘ly te) fall bae‘k on an aneie*nl
traelition of su]KTnatural causation to ae*e‘ount for siieli pre*-
e*e)gnitive* results. Several alteTiiati \ts are* e)|K‘n te> eM)n-
sideTation if we take* the* rational standpe)int. One*, lliat
Shaeklete)n was able* in some mamuT te) ieh ntify the targe*t
cards by auelite)ry e'ues anel maele se)me kinel e)f lightiun^
caleulatie)ns as te) the [)ossible iele'iitity e>f the ne‘xt e*arel :
this, he)W(*v<*r, e*an be dismisseel e)n se veral <nprounds. Twe),
that by a.eeiel(*nt e)r elesi^n Shae'kle lon or tlie* observe'r who
was kce'ping the targe*t-card reeorel shifte‘el their se*ore*s one
or two plae*(*s in the seore-eohimn, the*n*by giving an apparent
preceignitivc effect te) theise e>f Shae*kle*ton‘s successful gue*sse^s
which were due tei the traiismissie)n e)f auditory e‘U<\s. This
again appears highly unlikely unless tlw* exptTini(*nteTS and
witnesses were party te) e)pen frauei. Thre‘e^ that Seial’s list
of ranelorn figures, or the assistant experimenter’s selection
of ee)unte‘rs, ae*e*e)rding te) the niedlmd in use at the time,
w*ere not strictly random at all but w^re harme)nis(d in senne
way with ShackletoiTs uneonscious number liabits. Four,
that duriug the experiments with the counters, tlie target-
card rece)rder liearel Shaekleton’s guess by inve)luntary arti¬
culation or from the sound of his 'penciU and that it uncon¬
sciously biased the aeeairacy of his scoring. lInce)nse*ious
motivational se^oring occurs only too (*asily with se)me
individuals.

ThK PsYCHOUMJY of TFIK Ol'ClTl.T

4(>2

This last possibility seems, on collateral evidence, the
only one out of the alternatives enumerated above to be
worthy of consideration, and this could only be regarded
as pc'rtinent to th(' expc'rinients in which the random distri¬
bution of target cards was obtained by the use of coloured
counters. On tlu' whole, therefore, we can dismiss these*
suggested exj)lanations as unsatisfa(*tory. We must se'areh
for anotlu'p theory to account for Soal’s extraordinary
results one. moreover, which will cover all the variations
ill experimeiilal technique with equal efliciency. Such a
theory is, in fact, forthcoming.

Ih'fore* we tackle this question, howi'ver. tlu* possibility
of fraud must be brielly discussed, (’olliision during the
actual experiments seems out of the (|ueslion even if om*
doubts tlu* integrity of one or num* of the experimenters or
the critical ability of the independent witnesses. Mfiri'ovi'r.
Soal's own statistical analysis of the experiments is funda¬
mentally sound. The charge may lx* made that Soal or
someone else faked the records, including the eo{)ies which
were jiosted to Cambridge for safe-keeping. To anyone who
has full knowledge of the facts, however, this would appear
scarcely feasible.

In the opinion of the present writer we are bound to
aeecfit thi* results of Soal’s “ preeognitive telepathy ” experi¬
ments as authentic. In support of this statement it mav
be observed that four years of negative tests in telejiathie
research put Soal in a very strong position, both in regard
to any charge of his Laving faked the record sheets and in
regard to his ('tlieiency in excluding sensory cues from the
percipients. Ihit it should be emphasised that the accep¬
tance of Soal’s experimental results does not involve the
acceptance of his interpretation of them. His failure to
find a rational solution to explain his results cannot by itself
justify the adoption of a supernatural explanation or the
hyijothesis of “ an operative principle unknown to science ”

in whichever category telepathy may be placed ; such an
attitude merely shows the intuitive bias of the experimenter.

A UATIONAr, Kxin.ANATIOX

A Rational Kxpi.anatton of Soal’s Kxpkhiments is
Pkf(h)(;nittvp: Telepathy ”

The first tliiug to uotxN m stiulyiuj:; tlie report of Soal’s
experiments witli Sluiekleton,' is that Shaekleton scored
above eliaiie(‘ only vvln ii se nsory (‘in s of oik* kind or anotluT
appeared at l(‘ast to lx? a [)ossil)ility. Wliik* tlie telepathic
a^^ent was in a, position to know tlu‘ identity of the tarj^et-
eard and was thus in a position to transmit auditory cues
of so?ne kind Shaekkdon was ^(*ner;dly sueec ssful in scoring
above chanee. Hut in t(‘sts designed to exeliidc* the pos¬
sibility of t('k))athv, as, for e\am})le, in elairvoyam^e tests,
Shaeklelon’s score* was ne'^ative* anel airre‘e‘d with mean
pre)babilily expeelalion, be)tli on the tar^t t-eard and em the
forwarel and baekwarel elis])laeement. These e!lairve)yanee
te'sts without an a^nnt wcTe* inters}HTst‘d with telepathy
tests, but Sliaekle ton eontinue'el to se*e)re‘ only during the
latter, e‘V(‘n wheai he* was neit informe‘el of the* (dian^es fre)iu
“ telepatliy ” to ‘‘ elairve>yane(‘ e^ondiliems.

Th(‘ (‘xposure of the t.ar^e*t-(‘ards elurin^^ the tele‘pathy
expeTinierits prexhie'e'el re sults, therefore*, whieli wcTe ne)t in
e*vid(‘iie(* duriiifr experiments whene* the* tar^et-e*ards were
(!oneieale*eI freirii view. This is the* logie?al starting pe)int e)f
any investi^atie)n into Sead’s results. The* epieslion whie*h
has to be answere*el is Avhe*tluT or ne>t the e*xposure of the
tar^et-earels eoulel involve* the transmissiem e)f auditory eue^s
from a^ife^nt te) peredpient unde*r the? e*e)nelitions allowed by
the e^xpeTimental situation anel in ae*e*e)relane!e* with the
results obtaine*d.

For a clear presentation e)f the pre)blenis involve*el, it is
prope)sed to deal first with those (*xperiments where? a randeuu
distributkm of tar<,n t-e?ai els was a< liie ved by me ans o\‘ pre-
pare?el lists (»f random fi^ure?s. TJic experime'iits \vheic
random distribution was obtained by the use of e’ounters
of five* diderent (?e)le)urs will be de'alt with at a later stage.

In the? preparc'd-list e?xperiments tlie assistant expe*ri-
mente^r pre*se*nte*el to the? agent’s vie*w threiugh the ape*rture

SfKiI and (ioldixy, Kxpvrimnits iu Prvrn^iiitivv Tvfrpathtf, Proe*.

S.P.IL, vol. 47, p|). 21-150. S(s* also :

Soal, S.(i., Fresh Liu,hls ntf Card Gnesshiff Some Xnc Effects, Pnx*.

S.P.H., 1940-41, |i|). 1.V2-198.

46 -t Tin: PsvcnoLncY ok tiik Occri/i’

in the screen a raiuloiu seijuenee of numbers, ranging from
one to five, eorn sponding to those in his prepared list. The
agent, whose live dinV‘rent cards lay in front of him under
cover of tlie box-like screen, merely liad to glane(‘ at th(' card
corresponding to the number presented to him at th(‘ ap(*rture
in the scTctai ; the (‘ard lie glanced at was then the target-
card. Each tim<‘ tlu* assistant-(‘xpt‘rimenter presented his
nuinlxT at the aperture, he gave a verlial signal b) Sha(‘kleton
next door, by this means notifying him tliat th(‘ identity
another card was to be guessed. Th(‘ agent glarie(‘(i at
each target-card t‘V(‘rv two or thre(‘ s(*eonds.

In thes(‘ eireumstaJices it is not surprising that all at¬
tempted explanations along rational lines of the results of
these experiments hav(^ hitherto failed. For statistical
analysis of the perei])i(‘nt’s records showed conclusively not
only that Shaekleton consistently and suet't^ssfiilly guessed
the identity of tlie card ahead of th(‘ targ(*t card, but that
when the sp(*ed of guessing was doubled, he successfully
"‘j)roph<^si(‘d” the identity of cards ixco ahead of the target-
card ! i.e. lie aehiev(‘d a forward displae<‘m(‘nt of two
places instead of the usual om*. This on the fac‘(‘ of it
appears incredible. Yc± with the ease of Ilga K before us,
both as an example and a w^arning. the possibilities of the
operation of s(aisory cues via the medium of involuntary
articulation or souk* other form of vocal innervation must
be probed to the utmost.

Out of eleven agents whom Soal tested, only two were
successful, although a third was discoveard later. This
evident scarcity of good “ telepathic ” agents is significant,
for on several grounds it seems probable that most successful
“ telepathic ” agents are nothing more than good “ involun¬
tary articulators some of them no doubt consciously
“ giv(‘ fre(‘ play ”, to use Sidgwick’s expression, to the natural
tendency to innervate the vocal muscles during ICSP tests.
It is also certain that good “ involuntary articulators ” are
comparatively rare.

The Ilga K case has shown us that it is not so diilicult as
might be expexitt^d to transmit vocal cues to a keen-cared
person in another room without revealing the fact to others
present. Further, the experiments of Lehmann and Hansen
produced evidence tliat articulation with closed and immobile

A Rational Kxplanatton

wry

lips can be heard and eorrcetly interpreted at a einisiderable
distance if the percipient possesses hyj)eraeiite lieariiig;
Professor Sidgwick subsequently confirmed this, using an
ordinary subject at a distan(‘(^ of four f(‘(‘t from the agent.

In Soal’s experiments only five symbols hav'^e to be trans¬
mitted. In Sidgwick’s and the Danish experiments, on the
other hand, ninety- from 10 to 09-were employed.
Furthermore, in th(^ (tase ofllga K, whole words wer<^ trans¬
mitted syllable by syllable -words which w(Te entirely
unexpected by Ilga each syllable being ijiiperec^ptibly
tacked on to the end of the vi rbal adnionishrru^nts and
encouragements of the child’s mother who aet(‘d as “ agent”.
Obviously the KSF (^xjKTimcnt in which only five symbols
are to be guessc'd prescaits a situation far more' favourable
to thi^ correct interpretation of slight vocal sounds than when
a greater or idefinit<‘ number of symbols, figures or words are
to be transmitted. Mere ehang(\s in the tone of the agent’s
breathing (H)uld suffice for successful identification.

If the ('asc* of Ilga K is any criterion, then one may rc'ason-
ably infer that the chief requirements of a good ‘‘ t(‘l(‘pathie ”
percipient ar(‘ little more than the poss(‘ssion of a sense of
hearing considerably above average*. This does not require
any assumption of actual hyperaesthesia, i.e. extra-acute
sensitiveness of the physiological sensory organs of the ear
and afferent nervous system. As has been observed in an
earlier chapter, hyperacuity of the senses may be entirely
dependent upon psychological factors or upon the results of
training and practice. Apjirt from physiological hyperaes¬
thesia, among the factors which may be said to contribute to
sensory hyperacuity, that of diserhninatio?! is the most
important, i.e. the faculty of being able to discriminate
between the scarcely perceptible sounds which convey the
actual sensory cues arid the myriad slight sounds which
unceasingly fill the air. In another context it is this same
ability to discern the relevant cues from among the thousand
and one other surface dist\irbances which enables the abori-
ginee tracker of Australia to pursue the trail of his enemy
with such amazing accuracy.

The ability of the percipient to interpret correctly what his
discriminating car picks out is also a major factor in auditory
hyperacuity. This depends a great deal on the ability of

4()(> I’hk PsYC»i()r*o(iv or the OccTn/r

the individuHl to eoiiecnirate all his mental resourees on the
task, and apparently this particular type of mental concentra¬
tion and alertness often operates at a siilx'onseious level,
with the j)ercipient making only a minimal (jonseious effort.

AV’ithout recapitulating further the discussions of a pn^vious
chapter, we can assume that auditory cues of one kind or
another did in fact form the basis of Shaeklcton’s astonishing
performance*, and that these cues were transmitt(*d by the
vocal ai)paratus of one or more of those present during tlie
experiments. It appears utterly out of the (juestion tlmt
simple involunlarN* articulation or vexial innervation on the
part of the o^eid alonv could have produe(‘d the preeognitive
effect fo\md by Seal. We must therefore consider wlud.her
involuntary articulation by the agent and another person
together cfuild Iiave produced the same result.

The suggestion of involuntary articulation h trois was
first considered by ChowritJ and was upheld by Baervvald ^
to account for certain of the former’s experiments in hyper-
aesthesia with an advanced hysttTical subject. In the ease
of Soal’s experiments the two p(X)j)le most likely to be
concerned in th(' transmission of auditory cues, if such was
the case, would be the assistant-(‘xperimenter responsible
for presenting the random numbers or coloured co\mters at
the .'^erecn-aperture, and the agent.

Wc wull take first those experiments where the assistant-
exj erimenter shows a number at the aperture in the screen -
a n miber (!hos(*n from a prepared list of random numbers.
This type of experinK^nt comprised ov(t half the total
number of guessc's in Shaekletou’s preeognitive ” series.
If our assumption is correct, the most likely sequence of
events is as follows :

It was tin* duty of tin* assistant-experiment(^r to hold up
a random nunib(*r before* the sereen-apcrture and to give a
verbal signal to Shaekleton next door at the same time as
he did so. With this arrangement it is easy to believe that
he sometimes, p(*rhaps often, involuntary articulated the
folloxving listed number on his prepared list and that the
agent heard him.

Taking the* prece^pt of Ilga K, we may suppose that the
involuntary articulation of the ne^xt listed number took the

^ Die IntctlektueUcn Phanomene^ Berlin, 192.'5.

A Rational Kxpi.anation

467

form of an isolated syllabk? tacked on to the end of the verbal
signal which the assistant-exporiinenier gave each time he
presented a card at the apertim*. In any event, whatever
inodct was nnconseiously (or even consciously) adopted, the
fact remains that under the experimental conditions then in
force, the assistam-experimeiitcr could very easilj have' in¬
formed the agent, a foot or two awaj, of the number which
was to follow th<‘ one being presented at the aperture.
Moreover, il seems only Loo likely n inembering Ilga K -
that this proc(\ss (‘oiild have* escaped the (‘Ve or the ear of the
observer present.

The agent was g<‘nerally given th(‘ i)]>portunity of learning
the order of the Hn c target-eards in front of him. In those
cas(‘s when he did not have a (‘han(‘e to glanc(^ at their order
before Shackicton b(‘gan guessing, the first lew guesses
would nA’eal tlieir order as he turned them up. Thus the
agent was almost always aware* of the eorrespoiubaice between
each the assistant-experiiuente/s random numbers and
his own five picture cards. As mentioned b(‘fori‘, wdien the
agent had no (‘haiicc* of seeing the actual card faces, as in
clairvoyance tests, Shackicton failed to score above proba¬
bility (‘XjKctation.

We may suppose that when llu* assistant-experimetiler
arti(*nlated th(‘ listed random number which was to follow
the one he was then showing at th(‘ aperture, the agent
unconsciously (or consciously) echoed ” it. spontaneously
transposing it, however, into the name of its corresponding
eard-symhol, the identity of wdiieh he already knows.

To recapitidate hri(‘fly the outline of the hypothesis :
the assistant-exjierimenter articulates involuntarily the
iiumbiT wdiieh is iu‘xt on his list at the same time as lie
presents the targ(‘t-eard number to the agent at the aperture
in the scret^n. The agent hears the number articulated and
in turn articulates the corresponding card-symbol at the
same time as lie glances at the actual target-card. This is
heard by Shaeklelon and recorded, thereby producing the
impr(‘ssion that he had actually foreseen the card which is
to follow^ the target-card. Whether the entire^ process was
conducted at the uneonseious level or whether the three
persons concerned wTre in some degree aware of their vocal
innervations and their reception of the auditory cues is

MJS TifK PsYCHoi.cxiY or THK Or(’i;]/r

open to (juestioii. The former })ossibility is perfectly
feasible ; tlie uncoiiseious reception ami dissemination of
sensory cues is, as we hax e seen earlier, rnoix^ common than
might be supposed.

Tlu* above gc'ntTal dc'seription of how Shackleton may
hav(‘ produced a prc^cognitive trend on his score sheets is,
of course, eoiisiderably over-simplified. The apparent j)re-
eognitive trend was only re vealed by a. statistical analysis
of his scores, and a nurnbcT of factors probably center into
the picture w^hich we (‘ould not discover without n^peating the
experimental situation as it actually was. The above theory
as to how S(»al arrived at his cxperiimMital results reniains
a possibility only. Hut that possibility destroys all necessity
for postulating a tlu^ory of telepathy or tlu^ need for any
other supernatural (‘xplanation.

With the random-numbers ” experiments the “ chain of
articulation ” Iheory is relatively simple. It also has the
advantage that it offers an equally simple solution to Shackle-
ton’s success in guessing ” txvo cards ahead of the target-
<»ard w’h(‘M the speed of eard-ealling w^as doubled. For it is
then seen that the assislant-experimcnter is merely articu¬
lating unconsciously the numbers whi(;h lie two ahead on his
list insh^ad of only one ahead as previously—a change
presumably brought about by the doubling of the speed of
presentation.

Tjik Expkrimknts with Fouxtkrs

VVh( n the assistant-experimenter used counters of five
different (rolours to obtain a random selection of target
cards, th(‘ situation is complicated by the fact that he no
longer had b(‘fore him a list of random-numbers from which
to ascertain the subsequent s(‘quenee. Nevertheless, there
does not seem any strong reason why the theory of uncon¬
scious articulation a trois should not hold good.

In the ease of tht* counters-scrics at the normal rate of
guessing, thc^ assistant-experimenter drew the counters out
of a ha^, Wliile he was showing one counter at the screen
aperture with one liand, he was delving into the bag with
the other. In these circumstances wc may suppose that the

Tin: Kxpkiumkn^ts with C.ot^xtkks

aKsistant-exptTi I neuter frequently eanght a glimpse of the
colour of the (‘ounter which was to follow the oik* he was
presenting at the apiTtim*. ami that (as with Ilga K) he
could puss the information on to the agent by tacking the
requisite syllablt* on to the end of his verbal signal to Shackle-
ton. Alternativ(‘ly, he may lunc* articulated the colour of
the counter before lie gave the vtTl)al signal, thtToby giving
the agent more timt* in vvhicli to transmit the corresponding
curd-symbol to Shackleton.

With the introduction of the doubh* rate of calling (still
using counters) the abov(‘ explanation of the results would
be out of the (picstion if the us(‘ of tin* bag had liec n con¬
tinued. So it is of interest to note tliat in these rapid-
guessing exjK'rimenls //// open han't was substituted for the
bag. In order te) articulate intbrniution eoiieerning the e-eilenir
e)f the eeninter which was to follow tu'o ahead, the* assistaiit-
<'xp(?rirncnter would ne^e'd to be* able* to se‘e at least some* of the?
c'emiitcrs which he* was likely to e'hoeise from the bowl. This,
according to the e'enuiitions of the experiment, appe*ars
perfectly feasible. For owing t(' the* speeel at which the*
counters had to be prt‘se*nte*el at the serc*eu-a,))erlur(‘. the
assistant-experinu*nt(*r hael ne) time* to delve* dee*ply into the
beiwd and was eibliged lei pick the* ee)unters off the* fnj) of llu*
heap. It may e*v'en be that he? hael une*tmseiou^Iy si le*e*te*d
the particular eeninter befeire he* had pie*ke‘el it up. Hnt
even omitting this pe)ssibility. if a pre‘])onelerane‘e* e)f e?e)unte*rs
of any one cedour lay ein the te)p of the lieay), the* ehane*(‘s e»f
the assistant-experimente*r see ing llu in and pie king one e)r
them up w(*re very consieleTable*. as Se)al liimself pointe*d
out'.

To guarel against this |)ossibility and the* pe)ssibility e)f
conscious or uneonscienis sele*ctie)n. the assistant-expe^ri-
nienter ste)oel uj> (thereby inqiroving conditions fen* the
effective* transmission e)f cues by inveiluntarv artie*nlatie)n)
and looked, in the words eif Soul’s re*pe)ri, “ straight o\Tr the
top of the screen Anyeine familiar with the* subject of
peripheral visie>n will at once* see* fhe inadequacy of this
measure. It erendd not by itself have j)revenie*d uneeinseious
(or conscious) selection e)f counters at the* top e)f the* beiwl.

^ ibid.» p. 52.

470

'Fni: PsYC’ii()L<>(;v or Tin: Occ ri r

Kveii ij*th(‘ assistaiil-experihicnltT could not use his powers
of pcriphcTal visi<*n. a good (‘asc could he made out for a.
prior knowledge* <»f a considerable percentage of the* counttTs
to come. For after sliowing the counters at the screen*
aperture lie dro})p(‘d them hack into the bowl, aiul w<‘ must
assume* that during tlu* course of fifty gue'sses a gre;at many
of the counters which had pre viously be'cn used ware in fact
usexl again, perhaps several time*s ovct. Hy the* e*nel e)f the*
cxpeTimenl tlu* assistaut e^xperimemter would have had a
fairly ele'ar iele*a eif the* percentage* e>f each e*olour which lay
in tlie te)j) of tlu* be)wl.

Using his peiwers of perijilwral visie>n, toge‘ther with the*
oee*asional elownwarel glane*e*s wdiie*h must have* oe*eiirre*d from
time* to time, the* assistant'e*xpe‘rim(*nter was in ve*ry favour¬
able jieisitiein feir being able* le) aseertain or se lex't the e*e)le)ur
of the eounteT which was lu be* )>re*seuteel two plae*es after the
target-counter, Feir to fa(*ilitate speed of |>re\se*ntation the^
assistant-e*xpe‘riinenter was obligexl to use* both hanels; jire-
sumably, as one* e*e>un(er was being presente*d at the ape rture,
his either liand was usually engage‘el in lifting out a se*ee)iid
counte‘r, giving him the e*hane‘e* tei see or t*ve*n fo prC’Srlc.Di the
thirel ee)unte*r. If the e*olemr eif this thirel e*e)unte*r we*re*
artiemlated e‘aeh time* by the* assistant-e*xpe‘rinu*nter as lu*
presente*el the* first counteT at the se*i*eH*n-a}>e’rlure*, it woulel
IVilleiw' that, if the* agent heard it, he* weiuld be able*, by
articulating the ee)rresj)emeling carel-symbe)l. to eonve*v tei
Shackleton the ide*ntity of flu* earel-symbeil which was to
follow two plae'es after the* ae*lual target-card.

This explanation eif the rapiel-gnessing se rie s with counte*rs
may appear at first sight meire eeimplie'ateel than it is. Really
it is TU) more eeirnplcx than the* sleiwer se*rie*s ; the main
diirieulty be ing tlial the* iiUTe aseel speeei of guessing pre)viele*el
k*ss time feir the jire)e*e*ss eif involuntary artie*nlatiein a. trois
tei eipe*rate*. IVi offsed this disadvantage*, the* eijien beiw^l may
have actually given the assistant-e*xpcrime*nter a. be*tte*r
chane'c tei cognize* the* thirel e*ounte*r e*aeh time than diel the*
bag (in regard to the eine-ahe*ad e*e)unte*rs-e^xpcrimcnts).

It has be?en slieiwn that a rational explanation is feirth-
corning feir all of Seial’s e*xperiments with Shaerklcton, beitli
for those series where the random distributiein was achieved
by prepared lists eif random numbers and those where

Kxpkkimknts with Mrs. STl:^vART

471

counters were employed. Moreover, virtually the same pro¬
cess is seen to account for iKJth Shaekletou s successes at
the normal rate of guessing when he guessed correctly the
card one ahead of th(‘ targe^t-eard, and his rapid-guessing
succ(*sses when he guc*ssed correctly the card two ahead olT
the targ(d-card.

If, as many of th(‘ leading psychical researchers in Kugland
believe, the main case for telepathy or any oth(T form of
supernatural acquisition of knowledge stands or falls by
Soal’s expcrimcjits in prceognitive telepathy ”, the n^cd
iipon which that case leans is a weak one. For, apart from
the (considerations just enumerated, these much-vaunted
experiments in “ precognitive tek^pathy ” involve a total of
only G,09() guesses, a very small numbcT compared to the
experinu^nts of the American experinu nters. Of these, 3,789
constitutid the random-numbers series at the normal rate of
guessing. Only 529 guc'sses were dc^voied to the raiidom-
mimlxTs s<Ti(‘s at the double rate of guessing. Th(*sc s<x*m
open to the eharg(' of optional stopping. This last criticism
can also lx* dirccti^d to the double-rate countcrs-serics. In
any c\<‘nt the low iiumlx r of giu^sscs, 529 in th<* former and
794 in the latter ease, is not imj)ressive, parli(‘ularly if the
eliarge of optional stopj)ing of these s(Ties cannot lx* shown
to be false.

It was Soal’s contention that the changes from forward
displacxnnent to backward displacement and forward again
were mainly due to the effect of suggestion. On reading the
report, one does indeed obtain this impression. But wh(,TCas
Soal believed that Shaekleton was being affected by sugges¬
tion, it appears more likely that the assistant-experinumter
was tlie one thus aff(‘<!ted.

SoaiAs Telepathy Experiments with Mrs. Stewart

Since his (‘xperiments with Sliaekleton, Soal has carried
out another series with Mrs. G. Stew^art, involving a total of
approximately 17,000 card-guessing trials. The same cau¬
tious and elaborate steps to provide independent witnesses
at every stage were not followed in these experiments as
they w^ere with Shaekleton. In fact, in certain well-inf(')rmcd

472

Thi: Psyciioi.o(jy of tiif Occult

quarters, eouiplaint has been made that the conditions of
the exj 3 crinients with Mrs. Stewart have not been indepen¬
dently witnessed, and there seems good reason to believe
that the conditions of the Stewart experiments were con¬
siderably l(‘ss rigorous than those with Shackleton. Cer¬
tainly thiT(' is an unwarrantable atmosphere of secrecy
surrounding these latter experiments.

Mrs. Stewart did not succeed in achieving scores with a
preeognitive trend. Her records showed only a consistent
success in scoring on the actual target-card—a situation
which is very simply explained by unconscious (or inten¬
tional) arti(Tilation of the target-card symbol by the agent.

We can afford to ignore those experiments where major
variations in experinu‘ntal technique were tried out, with
varying degree's of success, on account of the small number
of trials in each type of experiment. The one exception we
must make is the series of 1,000 guesses in a “pure tele¬
pathy ” cxpc'rimcnt where the agent, referred to as Z,
coiuTiitrated on cards which provided only indirect reference
to th(‘ usual symbols.

Without going into the complicated details of the experi¬
ment, whi(*h were designed to exclude all possibility of
clairvoyance as opposed to telepathy, we n)ay note that this
experiment is so easily explainable by unconscious articula¬
tion tiuit it is surprising Dr. Soal and his colleague went to
such enormous trouble in planning it. The score achieved
by the percipient was certainly impressive ; she obtained a
total of 298 correct guesses as against a chance expectation
of 200. providing “ odds of many millions to om? against
chance

In r(‘gard to a further 1,000 trials over the telephone, the
most striking thing about these is their naivety. Sensory
cues (*an b(* conveyed through the phone as easily as by any
other means. Only tlu' last series of 200' are surprising,
for in th('s(* th(' agent sat ten feet away from the phone at
the transmitting (‘nd while the percipient sat ten feet away
from th(' ree(‘iver. But 200 trials is too small a number to
be of any significance.

The only point of real interest in the experiments with
Mrs. Stewart is that she siKXwded in attaining positive

» Soal, S.G., The Experimental Siiuatum in Psychical Research , 1948, p.54.

Du. SoAL “ Tnvolvntaua" \Vi! 1 spi:uit\’(; ”

473

scores with eight different agents out of a total of twelve who
were tried. With Slmekleton only three successful agents
out of twelve were successful. Hut as has been mentioned
before, the conditions of the Stewart experiments seem to
have been far below th(‘ meticulous standards of the other,
whih' the secTccy attaelied to them inevitably lays them
open to a certain amount of scepticism.

Dk. Soap on ‘‘ Involuntary V\ iiispkrtno ”

We saw ill the last chaptiT that most ESP ex[HTinientcrs
seem completely unaware of the danger of sensory cues via
the medium of involuntary artiiailation. Hut Dr. Soal
certainly knew this danger better than most, and has at
various times referred to “ uneonseious whispering ”, “ in¬
voluntary whispering”, and ‘"incipient vocalisation”. It
seems curious tliat. if* Soal did recognise* the dangers from
this source, h(^ should have' largely disregardt^d them in his
experiments particularly those with Mrs. Stewart.

Rhine too has shown (‘vidence of his belief in tlie possibility
of transmitting auditory cues by involuntary articailation.
Not only was he editor of the Journal of Parapsychology when
the case of Ilga K was published, but in 1938 in his book
New Frontiers of the MhuL he wrote the following :

‘"When Professor A. Lehmuiin, a Danish })syeholo^ist. raised the
question as to whether ‘ involuntary wJusperin;j: ’ (with closed lips)
could explain the Kn^lish ScKMOty’s result in thouprht-triinsferenee he
showed that involuntary whisperiiif^ did occur witli some peoj)le wlien
they were thinking intently and that under certain ciicuinstances
which he devised in his laboratory others could he guided by it.”

This is not a very clear summary of the Lehmann and
Hansen experiments, and possibly Rhine missed the main
significance of these experiments—namely, as Proft^ssor
Sidgwick himself confirmed subsequently, that articulation
witli closed and immobile lips could convey information
across a distance of several feet with peo})le of ptTfectly
ordinary powers of hearing. It is strange* tliat. having read
the Lehmann and Hansen report, Rhine himself should have
conducted many experiments which, while fully permitting
the operation of “ unconscious whispering ”, lu* attributed
to the operation of eoctra’Sensory perception !

474

Trn: l\^YCU()isOaY oF ruF Oc( Vi/r

Soal, like Rhine, had become interested in telepathy and
clairvoyance experiments through a general interest in
psychical research. Both Rhine and Soal had investigated
spiritualistic mediunKs, the former witli .alleged reservations,
the latter with ke(Mi interest. Both deemed there was
eviclenee of “ psyehie faculties amongst the large amount
of nonsense* which eliaraet(‘ris(*d spiritualistic uttera!\<*es. In
one detailed investigation of the spiritualist medium Blanche
Cooper, Soal eaim* strongly out in favour of her para¬
normal faeulti(‘s. Later, howe\ (*r, he alniost entirely
retracted his findings mainly on grounds of "" involuntary
whispering ”. Wrote Soal :

“ Wert* it iK»t for eeriaii episodes in Mu* case of ^ (vonioii Dav'is,’
I sliouhl not he afraid to fare the possibility of the* liypothesis of a
mixture of involuntary whispering on iny own part and the oeeasional
reading int«) vague souiuis words that w'en* not really artieulated by
the Medium.” ‘

The spiritualistic press did not receive this annouiieement
too kindly, and Soal apparently found himself oblig(‘d to
defend his tlu'ory ;

” There is nothing inherently absurd in the hypothesis of uiiemi-
seious whispering. Incipient vocalization is kno'wn to be an accompani¬
ment of conscious thinking in many persons ; it certainly occurs in
much of my owm. ^Vhy then, sliould it not fref|ueiitly take place
during unconscious cerebration. The rpiestion whether there are
<rertain liyperacsthetie subjects in whose minds involuntary whisper¬
ing is able to start trains of thought, is a matter for experiment and
not for dogmatism.”

He went on to add :

“ At this date I do not attac'li iiuieh seieiitifie value lo my t’ooper
r<‘eords ; they w’cre obtained und<*r <*onditjons tJiat wf‘re far from
ideal. Jii fact, fiad I obtained such Results today under the same
defective conditions I should never dream of allc»wing such re(*ords
to be published.”*

That Soal should public^ly retract, the validity of past ex¬
periments is a tribute to liis honesty. Rliitu^ has never, to
the author’s knowledge, retraete<l his origiiiiil claims in
regard to experiments often far more questionable than any

* Psychic Science^ April 1938.

» Light, 1038, p.i>32.

I)|{. SoAI. OX IXVOI.rNTAHV \Vhisi*krin(; '

475

of Seal’s, 'rhe most likely mismi why Rhiue has nut, re-
t.racted his past olaitns is jmyhahly due lo his many cj; catiwdra
pronoiinoements. Poiitil5(;ating depends lor its siieeess on its
(K)niiTining as a oiu'-way process, and rctraetion ean only
result in a serious weakening of prestige and eventual eelipse,
unless there is a solid liasis of fael upon whieli to fall hack.
Th(* KSP experimental situation has no sueh s(»lid basis.

Highly [>ertinent was Soal’s eoininent in the same lette r
to Light in llKtS : / suggest that a laboratory ejrmainatiou

into tlw possibility of unvonseious vocalisation in eonnection
with subjects shouting auditory hyperaesthesia should be
carried out,'" It is (*urious tliat nev(T in the annals of psy¬
chical resc^arerh or parapsychology has any such in^■cstigation
been undertaken the case of Ilga K was an i)icidental oiu‘,
and its lessons wen* almost ( iitin ly ignond.

Soal certainly em'isage<i the pt)ssibilily of the transmission
of the sensory cues during his experiments with Mrs.
Stewart. In his Experhnental Situation in Psychical
Research* he incliuh^s sev(Tal paragraphs uikUt th(‘ sub-
titl(‘ Unconscious Whispering, Hc ’c' Soal puts tiu' ease* < t
l!ga K as an example of both auditory hyperaeuity and in¬
voluntary articulatiojj. He (*\;en went so far as to admit
the possibility of the pcTcipitad receiving vocal cues with¬
out being eon.seiously aware of tluan. As he himself wrote*:

Now though these sounds emitted hy the agent might be tar too
faint for Mr. V, [the pe.reipieiitj to )>(• eoriseiously aware of tliem
in the next room, they might y«*t In* of siifheient inUmsity to set a
train of thought moving in his mind. 1'fiat is to say tliat some part
of his mind iniglit regist<*r them and thus Mr. F. might got a erhie to
the initial sound of the name of tin* animal [eard-symtiol]. That
the above possil)ility is more tlian a inert* hypotht*tiea! eoiij«*eliire
is ironlirmed by the ease of the Latvian ])easant ehiid Ilga K.” *

The really surprising thing is that Dr. Soal, after having
written this, eoueluded that Mrs. Stewart’s sueeesses were
not in fact acliieved by unconscious whispering. ’ He
buttr(*ss(‘(l this conclusion by referring us to a successful
series of a mere (HX) guesses conducted ()V(*r the telephone,

• 1947.

• op. cit, p.1‘2.

476 Tifi: PsYciTOLooY of the Occui.t

with the last 200 involving a distance of some ten feet be¬
tween the agent ai\d his telephone and same distance be¬
tween Mrs. Stewart and her receiver. After that, to judge
from the record, sh(' failed to continue to s(*or(‘ successfully.

These telephone expcTiments cannot, it is clear, be held
to confute the theory of involuntary articulation for any one
of thret‘ reasons, viz. their small iminber, the* possibility of
optional stopping, and th(‘ fact that s(‘nsory cues can be
convi‘yed over a telephone. The (‘harge of optional stopping
appears to be more of a fact than a possibility in th(*se tele-
phon(‘ (experiments.

If any doubt remains as to Soal's belief that sensory (5ues
may be conveyed by involuntary articulation, the following
quotation should dispel it :

“Our Ciird-guessin^ <‘X{W‘niiients of UKU-IIKM) failed to produce
any evideiici; wliatever thiit ordinary pc^rsoiis sitting at a distance of
about lhre<‘ feet from an agent were able to seton* by pi(;kirig up
whispers or faint arti(*ulations. Hut thougli I am (piite certain that
ordinary people are incapable of such a feat at f lu* distance of 6-8
yards which obtained in the Shackleton and Stewart cxperimc‘nts,
even if there were any wdiispers to pick up, it is still conceivable lliat
exceptional |>ersons like Ilga K are able to manage il, and Mrs.
St<‘vvart might be one of these exceptions.'’ »

In his investigutiotis into the vaudeville telepathist,
Marion ”, Soal arrived at the positive conclusion that his
subject gained a great deal of information from tlie behavioiu*
of his agent. From his experience in one type of experiment
with Marion, Soal was led to criticise souk* of Rhine’s ESP
experiments on the ground of visual cues. He states :

. the exf>erimeiit has an important h‘sson in connection with the
teh*patlii(‘ exptuiments of Dr. Hliitie. No such experinwnts can be
considered of any crucial importance if the percipient is able to see any
part of the agenVs body. Where the percif)ient Jias only a small
miinber (5 or 6) of figures from which to make his ehohre, the }>ossibi]-
ity of visual codes elaborated uncomcimisly when the same agent and
pereipierjt work together over any considerable pericKl of time is too
patent to be overlooked. In iny repetition of the ex|K*riinenls in
telepathy^ I have used a screen from tlie very beginning and consider

op cit, p. 56.

Dr. Soai. on Involuntary VVihspkrinc;

477

that experiments ecmducted without the use of a screen are \ alueless

so far as tlie demonstration of telepathy is (concerned.*’ ^

Elsewhere Soal records ; Personaliy, I have never ex¬
posed a naked card U) a subject in the course of over 100,000
trials.”

Why did not Soal show the same care in preventing the
transmission of auditory cues, as in excluding visual cues,
when on his admission he was aware of the dangers from such
a source? A sentence' from his pamphlet Advice to Ejrpcri-
nmiters and Instrwtors (1948) makes his attitude' even more
inexplicable : From the very start let th(‘ cards and thi'

percipient be in separate but adjoining rooms with a door
between them.” Yet it was under precisely such conditions
as these tluit Tlga K adiieved her phenonuaial successes in
detecting syllable's and words through her abnormally
developed sense of hearing. For an instructor of would-be
ESP experimenters, his advice appears to fall far short of
the requisite' standards. The door in his Shackleton experi¬
ments was purposely “ left an inch or two ajar in order to
facilitate liearing ” the vc'rbal signals of the assistant-
experimenter- an unwise precaution at best !

Soal nev('r imagined, apparently, that the assistant-
(‘xperiiTienter might give cues to the agent concerning the
order of the listed random-numbers or counters. H(' re¬
marks* that the assistaiit-experimentc'r (^ould have given
nothing away to the percipient “ by any inflection of the
voice ” each time he gave verbally the synchn>nisation signal,
since he did !iot know the order of the e.gent’s cards. He
completely overlooked the point that the a^ent could easily
have acquired vital information by such means.

The best test of the practicability of involuntary articula¬
tion a trois would be to try it out. With a little practic(‘
the precognitivc effect could very ('asily be ac'hieved if the
participants used their normal manner of speaking. One
may say, with certain reservations, that what is practicable
at the conscious level using normal mode's of vocalisation
may also, with certain people, be practicable at the uncon¬
scious level through the medium of involuntary articulation.

‘ Preliminary Studies of a Vaudeville Telepathist^ p. 33.

* Experiments in Precognitive Telepathyy Proc. S.P.R., vol. 47, p, 39.

478

Till’. PsYrHOLOCV' OF THE OCTtH.T

To sum up ; little conftdcuee can be placed in the ability
of experimenters who fail to see the necessity of maintaining
the very highest scientific standards; compared to the
rigid experimental standards of the physics laboratory the
experiments of Soal and Rhine and the rest must inevitably
meet with scepticism. VVe can, pcrhfips, with tongue in
<*heek, agree with Soal that “ with our present rough methods
it is impossible to do more than to suggest lines for future
research.” ’ As a final \vord on ESP experiments generally,
we can again refer to Soal: “ The number of experiments
tarried out and the number of good subjects discovered are
both st) ludicrously small that there is liardly a finding re¬
ported that has b(‘cn adequately confirmed.” * This is a
healthy admission of the state of I5SP rcst'areh and one which
refleets great credit on the sincerity and forthrightness of
its author. It is to be hoped that Dr. Joseph Rhine and his
colleague's would agree with this opiniot).

• op. cit., p. 57.

* The Experimental Sifnatiou in Psychical Resr'irch, lO tT, p. li.

Chapter Twraiif-riffht

THE lAHHCAL STATUS OF TELEFATHV AND
ANALOGOUS CONCEPTS

TTiIK ( Xpi riiiKMits (‘(MHlucled by “ parapsycholo^isl.s ” iti
the United Statrs and Kngland are, as we have seen, open to
eritioisni on ^n’onnds of the failure to guard against the
operation of sensory cues, oi\ when* .tliis is not direetly
observable, on grounds of the bias or ineornpetcne(* of the
experimenters eonecTned as evidenced in tluur writt(‘n reports
and papers. There an*, however, other grounds for Tvjvri'mg
such experiments, namely the nuiaphysicuL as o])p()sed to
scientific, nature of the hypotheses upon which they are
based. Metaphysical hypoth(‘ses, such as tliose founded on
the idea of a transeendental im ntal faculty, can nevcT possess
any f/cientific sigjiifieanee, a fundamental fact which EISP
experimenters have apparently lu ver appreciated. Xor do
parapsychologists seem aware that can never be empirically
proved.

The first thing to consider, in ente ring upon th(‘ (piestioii
of the logical and (pistemologieal status of telepathy and
similar ideas, is whether such terms dcjiote a fact, or a theory
(or hyj)othesis). Usually tJxey arc treated without, any
distinction being made and are spoken of indiscriminately
both as facts and theories.

Both the exact and the comparative sciences insist upon
facts which are, in principle at least, obse rvable by means of
our sensory apparatus. In applying this principle to the
situation found in, say, telepathy experiments, wc note that
the outstanding fact which requires an explanation is -to
generalise briefly -an observed temporal simultaneity or an

479

4S() ThK PSYCHOlXKiY OF THE OcCUI/r

objc(»tiv(‘ correspoiidriice between eertain related written or
spok(Mi symbols involving two or more people. In other
words, observabU' coihcidenccft ar(‘ found, and in th(‘ case of
the “ sueeessful KSF expe riment a eertain type of coinci¬
dence is observed whiedi happens far more often than mere
chance would account for.

Behind the objective expre^ssion of written or verbal
symbols, however, lie th(‘ menbil functions of the two people
concerned ; without mental activity involviF)g some degree
of eonseiousness, th(‘ symbols in cpiestion w'ould neither have
been wTitten nor spoktai. VVe can therefore take litth*
exception, apart from its vagm^ness, to Soal’s definitive
statement that the term Telepathy is merely a name at¬
tached to ee tain unexplained types of mcMital eoineiflence.” *

Parapsychologists claim that th(' existence of telepathy
has been seientifically proved. What do they nu^an by this?
Do they mean that certain uncxplainabh^ (‘oin(‘iden(‘(\s have
been discovered w^hieh have been termed tek^pathy ? Or
do they mean that the theory of transcendental mental
faculties has been demonstrated beyond all shadow of
doubt? It is (juite (‘vident from their journals and papers
that parapsychologists mean neither of these things; they
confuse the fact of certain “ mental (H)incid(!nces ” with the
hypothesis of extra-sensory perception, and lump them all
into one.

Naturally, what the parapsychologist observ(‘s, i.e. certain
coincidences, require a theory to explain them. If he postu¬
lates a theory of cognition acting indepcndantly of the human
senses and calls it telepathy or ESP, then it is ([uit(‘ clear
that telepathy and ESP are not the “ scientifically demon¬
strated facts ” he claims them to be. Neither are they
theories in the scientific sense of th(‘ word ; furthermore, it
is abundantly clear that the parapsycdiologist has not yet
produced a logical and internally consistent theory.

In answer to these arguments tJie parapsy(‘hologist may
say that telepathy and ESP arc preliminary hypotheses
only. Hi' might even go so far as to admit that they are
metaphysical, as opposed to scientific, hypotheses. He
might even go further and say that the facts warrant a
metaphysical hypothesis. And if he had a repeatable
» Light, 1988, p. 262.

Thk Logical Sta'jts of Tklfpa’miv tSl

cxpcriniciit, wlio could frainsjiy him ? lint lu* lias no r(‘j)cat“
able experinieni to ofTcr us. Nor docs he oiv(‘ us any lio[)e
that he will soimt day produce one. And his own experi¬
ments, as has been seen, are op(‘n to eriti(‘is!n on nauiy
counts. In view of the exlraordinary ambiguity of his
terminology, the f^ross ineompe fenee* of many of his j)ublish(*d
<‘xperiments, ami his eonfiision f)f m(‘1.aj)hysieal hyj)oth<‘ses
with s(*i(‘ntifie llu'ory, it is clear the jiarapsycholo^nst. seldom
thinks as scientist. His ap])roaeh to his subjict is fmula-
menlally that of the ajnaleur. It is little vvonder that the
scaentiiic world remains se<‘ptieal.

“Mental eoirieid(‘nc(‘s ” do not l)y Ihemselvts. it is el(‘aT,
<h‘mand a. tlieory of telejiathy to explain them. (’hane(‘ may
account for much, while inoTeru'c, scaisory stimuli or eoji-
vergent lines of thought might account for the rest. lint,
let us suppose that, taking into account all possil>l(' factors,
Soal’s experinuailal results defied any kind of rational ex¬
planation ; would it then be justifiable to assume that these
results were due to the operation of a causal j)rineii)U* at
j)r<'sent unknown to modern science? It would. Ihit in
actual fact Soal us(‘d admitt(‘dly “rough im^thodsin his
experiments and, as has already been seen, on(‘ formidable
loophole was left for the possible transmission of st'iisor^
cues. So in this particular instance the question of an opera¬
tive principle new to s(!i(!iu;e scarcely arises.

Even so, if such an assumption were in fact justifl(*d,
does the concept of t(*h'pathy, or any similar concept,
warrant serious scientific consid(Tation ? H(T(‘ the answer

must be firmly in the negative, for tlu? reason that sueli
concepts possess no logical status either as logi(‘al deductions
or as scientific inductions. We (^an, in fact, riqcct them for
three good reasons : One, that are j)urely imdaphysical
in outlook. Two, that their historical anteci-dc nis lie (en¬
tirely in the sphere of magic, superstition and mvsticism.
Three, that as sciientifie inductions they fail vomplefAy, since
no deductions can he made from them, by ivhich to test their
validity.

The first point explains itself, i.e. im'taphysieal sjH'cula-
tion is totally incompatible with scientific induction. In
the philosophical systems of Leibnitz, or even of Kant,
“ mind-to-nund ” or “ extra-sensory perception ” theories

482 Tjik PsYCH()L<)(;v ok tjik Occri/r

might not Hpptw unduly out of order. But it must bo
emphasised that siieli ideas arc, (‘vcii in the most favoural)I(‘
light, mere metapliysieal eoneepts whi(*h (*an have* nt) possible^
application to empirical exp(Timent, either as pntiminarv
hyj)oth(vses or as (levelope<l theories. Science aiul meta¬
physics are two things totally apart.

In regard fo the second ])oint, nanuly the liistorical
background of supernatural belief which pi rta ins to t( lepat hy
and allied eoneepts ; it must be observed that, while this
factor does not of itsetf invalidate these eonei'pls, it does
throw them into a tiigtily <lulhous ])erspeetiY(‘ ami on that,
account th(‘v will be regarded with more I bait average*
suspicion by the seientilie mind. The eommorisense view
of such theories, bewaring this historical ba(‘kground in mind,
is tliat t(‘l(‘pathy and (‘\tra-s(‘n.sory p(:‘r(*(‘j)tion art' Clothing
more than thinly disguised attemjds to rationalise tlu*
occult, or els(' nu rt'ly pretentious abstractions from primitive
wit(*h-lor('.

Historically speaking, sueli ideas stem from aiu'ient bt'liefs
in magic and sorcery. The historical traditions can be
traced in an unbroken liiu* from the (arliesi supernatural
belit'fs to the latest metaphvsi(*a.l tlu'orit's of the modern
KSF experimenter. This is a poiiit which modern occultists,
such as Hhine and Soal, do their utmost to ignore ; for thcau
the “ sup(‘rnatural ” becomes tlu* mon* ( uphemistie but
e(jually (|uestion-begging "‘paranormal a device* which
may dec(*ive Jiiany.

The long unbroken tradition of occultism and Ixdief in
th(^ supernatural which forms the historical background to
modern KSP exj)erimentation is a factor wdiich the impartial
investigator cannot afford to ignore. From the point of
view of tlu* scientist the position of Soal or Rhine may be
said to amount to this : granted the necessity for postulating
the existence; of a causal connection in order to account for
the experimental results achieved ; but why not, asks the
.scientist, ae'lively seek the causal connection instead of
passiv(‘ly falling back on a tradition of occultism to (;xplain
these expe'rimental results? In any <‘vent, he might well
add, ignorance is m)t dispelled by revH'rsions to the super¬
natural, to streamlined soul-theories, to mysticism or to

Till’. Lnr/iCAL Statt^s of Tfff.vatiiy

4H3

metaphysics, hv>wcver technol()|TU‘a\ \ht! jargon in which they
ar(‘ expressed.

Soal’s experiments in telepatliy coim* at the end of a long
series of investigations into the various j)henom(‘na of
spiritualism. Soal was one(‘ himself a very competent
automatic* writer. His considerable automatic output has
largely Ik'cii |ml)lislied in th(‘ Proevedings of the Society
for Psychical Researeli. If is seri[>t [)ers()nalities usually
purported to lx* spirits on the other side of the grave—a
j)iece of fiction wliich did not appear to imj)ress Soal himself
hut which led him to inulerlakt* investigations in an elTort
to ase(‘rtain whether or not the scripts contained (*vidence
of knowledge su])ernaturally or '' para normally " accpiircd.

With this background to his own KSP experiments it is
not surprising that (ven Soal (*onfus(*s oc(*ult and meta-
j)hysieal speculation witli scientiru* th(‘orv. Rhine is even
worse* situated in this resp(‘ct. His theories, largely bor¬
rowed from My<‘rs via the* writings of G. N. M. Tyrrell,
expound a nu‘taph\ sics of anthro]) 0 (*(*Mtrism ”, which is
very similar in many respects to the oriental doctrines of
Sankhya-Yoga,

In regard to the third point, that t(*lcpathy ct alia are not
true scientific hvpolh<*scs or inductions, this naturally follows
from the first one. Hut the futility of such theorising will
be brought out ckarly by a brief discussion of scientific
theories in general. While the search for a new operative
principle liitherto unknown to science is not of itse*lf open
to any logical objection, the assumption that metaphysical
“ mind-to-mind ” or “ extra-sensory perception ” theories
might fit the bill is naive in tlie extreme.

Such theories are, from any scientifit! criterion, not only
useless but literally meaningless. For consider the nature
and purpose of any scientific hypothesis : it is little more
tlian an arbitrary assumption made for the purpose of further
reasoning and chosen, for one reason or another, in preference
to other arbitrary- assumptions. It serves as a starting
point for further empirical or theoretical investigation. If
it leads to useful practical results its validity' is assured.
For there is only one test of the validity^^ of a scientific hypo¬
thesis, and that test is the pragmatic one, i.c. does it lead to

484

The of the Occtjet

further j)ractieHl results ? By this criterion telepathy and
similar concepts arc obviously (juitc redundant.

A^ain, tlu* prime necessity of any exploratory liyj)othesis
is that it sliould be nnanibi^uously formulated so that no
one sliall remain in deaibt as to what it means, i.i‘. all its
terms must l)e strictly definalde ernes. No one, for (‘xaniplt*,
was in any ele)iibt when Copernicus put forward Iiis liypo-
thesis that the^ plane^ts went re>un(l the sun inste^ad e)f the*
earth. In sue*h liype)these*sas tel(‘patliy anel e*lairvoy-
aiice we find an abundance of highly ambiguous terms such
as “mind”, tlu‘ “action” of one “mind” on anollur,
anel the* scicntificalbj inerennpre heiisible* terms “ exh-a-
se‘nse)ry ” })ereeption e)r eognitiejn.

There must be at least a se*ore of mark(‘dly divcTgent
views as to what is imvint by “ minel ”, varying fre)m nuda-
physieal se)ul“the‘ories to the* semi-mee‘hanie*al the^ories t)f
Freud. “Mind” has never be^en j)roperly d('tin(‘d in any
scientific sense, and it remains a rne taphysie^al eronee'pt only.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary detine s mind as “ the seat
of cemseieuisru'ss ”. If w(‘ ask for a pn'cise definition e)f

seat ” all wx* are- given is further ligurativc or }u\alogieal
syneuiyins- nothing concrete* or verifiable, nedhing that
could ('ven be termed a logical abstrae*tie)n ; nothing, in
fact, b(*yonel a vague me taphor or the additie)n of yet ane)ther
“ indedinaldc definition ” such as “ that which causes e>ur
thoughts ” (wdiich is to be founel in \Ve‘t)stcr\s (‘xcrlle^nt
International Dietiemary),

\Vc can, of course, substitute the term “ mental activity ”
fe)r mind, for mental activity is a faed of direct subje^ctive
experience. But to hypedheeate that mental activity itsedf
possesses transcendental aspects of its e)wm imnuHliatcly
involves us in e*ven further metaphysical -seiiue would say
mystical—ambiguities of a highly speculative emier. Lack¬
ing any inteTnal le)gical structure of their own, thccroncepts of
telepathy and extra-sensory perception arc, and must remain,
quite meaningless from the scientific standpoint.

Whither does ail this argument lead, as far as the psychical
researcher is concerned ? Wc can summarise the situation
thus : One, cerhiin coincidence's occur which are thought
to be unexplainable by normal means. Two, a hypothesis
is required, but since telepathy and extra-sensory perception

Titk Logic ai. Status of Telkpatiiy

485

iir(‘ metaphysicral concepts, meaningless from the scientific
standpoint, another approach, a strictly scientific one, must
he tried—assuming, for the sake of argument only, that
scMisory cues are out of the question as an explanation of
KSP experiments. Thr(‘(‘, the final aim of any exploratory
hypothesis put forward must he tlu* dc^velopment of a
comprtdiensive seientilic theory. Hefore this can be done,
how ever, it is first iu‘e<*ssary to uudcTstand both the purpose,
th(‘ scope and the limits of seh^ntifie theories in general.
This is precise ly what parapsychologists have conspicuously
fail(‘(l to do.

In considering th(‘ jiossibility of a nvw scientific theory
to explain the experimental results of Soal and Rhine, all
such mystical notions as transcendental pow(Ts of the* mind
must be firmly rel(‘gated to the spheres of occultism, meta-
j)hysi(\s or tlu^ology, and kept then . A seie ntifie theory in
th(* modern sense is lirsi and foremost a product of inductive
reasoning. Moreover, the soh* test of its validity is whether
all of its verifiable logic^al conse(juenc(‘s are rea.lisal)le in
fa(‘t. If a single one is not realiscul in faei wdir*n put to
experimental t(‘sl, then that th<*ory is automatically in¬
validated.

As may be seia*, this is no liappy hunting ground for the
amal(‘ur who wishes to formulate tlu*orctieal principles new
to science ; and few of us possess the intelK‘et of a Newton
or an Einstein.

Since the purpos(* and value —or. as somci would even say,
th(‘ relative truth of a scientific theory d(‘j)cnds on the
possibility of d('ducing logically its (‘onsequenees, the need
for an accurate' and clearly defined formulation of any such
theory is immediately obvious. This is invariably true in
all the exact sci(*nc(*s. The comparative seieiKH^s mnther
iHHjuirc matheniati(‘al exactness of theoretical formulation
nor (since they dc^al with relatively inexact data) can they
attain to it.

But the mctliods of the comparative scienc(*s will not do
for the ESP experimenter. If he is to formulate^ an operative
principle new to science, he is bound to a(‘(!cpt the criteria
of the exact sciences, in the same way that his actual experi¬
ments are bound to conform to them before anyone will
believe in their accuracy.

480

ThK PSYrilOLOCiY OK THK OcC'ULT

But the insoluble difficulty of the ESP experimenter,
assuming his views to be somewhere in the right direction,
is to produce experiments which will provide the needed
basis upon which to erect an exact inductive^ theory. Only
with the employment of mathematics is exact theoretical
formulation possible. But the application of mathematical
theory presupposes exactness of observation just the v(*ry
thing that can never be attained in ESP experin\ents, or, for
that matter, in any type of psychological experiment.

The conclusion to be drawn is that, even if the ESP
experimentcT is correct about the need for a new scientific
operative principle to explain his experimental results, the
search for such a prin(‘iplc is doomed to failure. But, as
has been seen in earli(T chapters, the parapsychologist’s
experimental results are open t > criticism on grounds of the
experimenter’s bias and incompetence', or else are open to
a rational explanation ; so far as he is concerned th(! nc('d
for an operative principle new to science has not in fact
arisen.

Apparently the parapsyc^hologist or psychical researcher
does not realise that a scientific theory is nothing iiiorj than

a tool.a device for calculation and prediction -tluit in

the exact sciences abstract mathematical theory has almost
entirely taken the place of verbal thc^orising.

The position of the psychical researcher is not enviable.
He se<‘ks a logi(!al explanation for anomalies which ap¬
parently cannot be explained by contemporary seientilie
principles. He wishes to explain the anomaly of certain
“ menbil coincidences ” which allegedly occur without tlu'
operation of sensory cues, in much the same way as Einstein
wished to find a logical reason to explain the anomaly of the
observed constant velocity light. Now it is (juite true
tiiat a few unexplained scientific anomalies have, in the
past, led to older scientific ideas being superst*d(‘d by totally
new and revolutionary principles.

Einstein’s new ideas meant that the old Aristotelian logic
and the old Newtonian “ laws ” were overthrown from the ir
hitherto invincible supremacy. This, apparently, is what
the ESP experimenter seeks to do. His task is formidable
indeed. For he must be prepared not only to try his hand
at the three-valued mathematical logic of modern science

Tiik LociicA], Status of Tf:Li:rATiiY

487

bui to institute* yet another revolution in seie iitilie thinking
wliieh will eontain the modern scientilie theories as Kin-
stein’s eonlained those of his predecessor ! t’ertain it is
that to evoke principles not yet known to inodeTii science
will require at least a two-valued logic. And this will
inevitably mean that any such thcejry as the* ])arapsychologist
may evolve will be incapable of formulation in terms of
verbal logic.

AVh(‘n the convenient Newtonian fielion of the law of
gravity ” was sup(‘rsedcd by the modern matheinatical
theory of relativity, no one was certain how to descrilx* the
new con(?(‘pt in words. Minkowski and Kddinglon. amongst
others, tried to give it vt rbalised cxpr(‘ssi()n by describing
the behaviour observed when two bodies a])proach one
another as due to the effects of the "‘curvatun* in the spacc-
time continuum ” the bodies following the line of least
resistance. This verbal description is largely analogical,
for there exist no verbal eonc<‘pts to ex|)ress abstract mathe¬
matical ideas once we l(‘av(‘ Kuelid(‘a.n logic behind. TJxe
reason why this is so is that math(‘maties is ilself r//? ejienslon
of v(‘rbal logic and is th<T<‘fore able to j)en<*trat(* wliere v<Tbal
logic alom* can never r(‘aeh.

It may be worth noting at this point that the o})t‘rativ^
principles which underlie the parapsy(‘hologist’s own nada-
physical hypot}u‘S(‘s iwc niainly drawn from nineteenth
century jdiysics principles which hav(‘ sii»ee been re[)laced
by others in present-day physics.

The impossibility of describing modern jdiysical theories
in terms of verl)al logic is mainly due to tlu* facd that verbal
logic has never gone V(Ty far beyond tlu* Aristotelian or
Kuclidean kind with its si?igle set of rules; while modcri'.
physics uses a three-valued logic each with its own (‘utirely
dilierent set of rules. Minkowski’s “ four dimensional spa(;e-
tinie continuum just mentiom‘d is merely a j)iee<* of verbal
symbolism expressing, somewhat j)icturcsquely, the under¬
lying mathematical concepts ; it provides analogi(‘al expres¬
sion for the fact that relativity physicists hav(*, for pimdy
practical reasons, arbitrarily choscai to measure time in
t(*rms of the m(‘asurcments of space.

The scientist today cannot give a true r(*presentation of
abstract physical thc'ories in w'ords; all he can do is to draw

Tin: PsYcnouHiv or riir Occvi/r

4HH

analogies. Yet oiir psychical researcher apparently believes
that Iiis simple verbal “ theories ” an* potential rivals to
the three-valned inath(*mati(‘al logie which underlies modern
scientific concepts. It is the wishful naivety of such ideas
as telepathy and ‘‘extra-sensory perception” w^hich lends
to them till* folk-ion* charm of one of (Jrimni’s or Afanas’ef’s
fairy tales.

Whereas tlu* scientist is eon(‘erned only with practical
results and applications of his theories, the ESP experimenter
Ixlieves that his theories })ossess an ulterior significance
apart from tlu* (jiustion of any j)ra(‘ti(‘al value they might
have. That is to say, hi* believes wholeheartedly that his
experiments provi* the transeendeneeof “ mind ” ovit matten
tliat human kiiowl(*dge can free itself from the bonds imposed
by the ph(*nomenal nniversi*, that the [ihilosjihy of idealism
may be yet })roved by emjiirical experinu‘nts. that mind ”
may react on '' minil ” In' m(*uns of an ope rative* |)rincipli*
as yet unsnspeeted by the* seientifie* world ; he believes, in
fact, what mystics of all climes anel all lanels have* belie-veel
for thousamls of wars it is surprising how little this
‘‘ j)(‘rennial philoso|)hy e*hangv‘s after it ent(*rs the* labora-
t(»rv !

Seientilie the'ory being (*ssentially pragmatie*, possess(*s no
metaphysical signilieane*!* whatso(*v'er. So that (‘ven if
jiarapsyehologists did sue(*e*ed in formulating a genuinely
se*i(‘iitifie theory of extra-sensory perception, they could
draw from it nothing of any metajihysieal import. Rhine,
following Myers anel Tyrrell, igne>res this factor completely,
and continues to insist that extra-sensory perception (now
taki*n as a fact, not a theory) j>roves the essential correctness
of Kantian id(*alism. Such })hile)sophising is perfectly
perniiss ble up to a point; but even where se'ientists are
pre)ne to metaphysical or even mv’^stical speculation, as in
the ease of Eelelington and Jeans, they do not allow such
speculation to eider into their work or jractical research.

SoiiH* philosophers have attempt(*d to base their metaphy¬
sical systems upon purely scientific concepts, the folly of
what was brilliantly exemplified by S. Alexander's monu¬
mental failure to adopt the space-time continuum of rela¬
tivity theory as the basic conception of his metaphysical
thcfrising. Psy<*hical researchers have often referred op-

Tmk L(>(;ical Status of Tkjj;pathy

48n

timistically to Eddiiigtoii’s version of Kantian idealism iu
eoiiuection with their own viewj)oint; Alexander’s Space,
Time and Deity might have suited th(‘ir purpose still better !

In the philosophical pseudo-controversy between idealism
and mat(Tialism Rhine comes down heavily yet superficially
on the side of idealism, which he illogic^ally believes his ESP
experiments to have fully substantiat(Tl as the only correct
\ iewpoint. He even advoeat(‘s a revision of the basic
principles of conteinpoary scicaice on this ac'count! Ilis
experinierits. and tlu^ th(^ori(‘s based upon them can, of
(•ours(‘, throw no more light on the idealism-mat(*rialism
controversy than Minkowski’s concept of space-tinu^ which
Alexander so misused.

The parapsychologist’s d(‘lusions hav(' sometim(^s l(‘tl
him to claim that his experiments have uprooted the tradi¬
tional coiicej)ts of science. This finds expression in two
ways : his Ix^lief that new “ laws of nature are awaiting
discovery just around !lu‘ corner ; and his belief that thes(‘
new laws will, wJicii discovered, throw revolutionary light
on the cosmos and tlu* nature of man's relation to it. Herein
he makt‘s two fallacious assumptions : namely that “ a
law of nature ” is something objective and external, existing
in its own right; and that the discovc’rv ” of any such
law would possess a mctajdiysieal signilicar.ee. These
errors stem naturally from his ignoraiKT* of what constitut(‘s
a ‘‘law of nature”. Hritlly. a scientific or natural “law” is
basically nothing more than a highly geucralis(‘d d(*scription
of what is obs('rvi*d. The idea of a “ a law of nature ” is
now scientifically obsolete, its place having been taken by
the more practical functional and differential (equations of
jnodern physics.

The ESP researcher must bear in mind that any laws he
may “discover ” can only be laws of his own devising ; he
must recognise that no “fundamental truths ” i\ vcaling the
nature of man or th<‘ universe can ever be fo\md this way ;
that no union between transcendental nudaphysics and
science is evt^n remotely possible : that the sole purpose of
all scientific theory is to predict the most likely cours<‘ of
t'vcnts or to control in some measure the (‘vtMits themselves ;
that the fundamental nature of the universe and of man arc
problems not even touched upon b\’^ science^ because science

490

Thk Psychology of tjie Occui/r

<lcals only with the iiitcrnal or external relations of observed
phenomena.

In conclusion it may be said that as long as the ESP ex¬
perimenter is more interested in trying to prove such pre¬
conceived metaphysical “ theories ” as telepath\', c-lair-
voyanee and non-sonsory perceptioji, instt'ad of trying to
find a rational explanation of his experiments, his elforts,
sincere though they may be, are doomed to frustration and
failure.

Experiments in telepathy and clairvoyance, indeed all
” psi-phenomena ”, as we have seen, can be exjdained away
on rational grounds. Even if this were not so, the telepathics
or elairv(»yanl interj)rctalion given to any such experiments
is seen to be (juilc nu'aningless from the seienlitie stand¬
point. It has also been scaai tluit the fininms of sneh experi¬
ments is derived historically from beliefs in magic and the
supernatural.

In view of these eoi\elusions one might naturally ask
whether Engli.sh and American Universities are to eontimu'
their aetive support of such experiments. It is lo be siii-
eerely hojx-d not. Eor the resurgence of supernatural
beliefs within the precincts of modern universities cannot
be regarded otherwise than as a retrograde' ste]) of the first
magnitude. It is virtually a reversioti to the irrational
beliefs of the Middle Ages.

When the; state of the w'orld demands the e\’er-inere.‘ising
development of human poweTS of reaseen, it is somewhat
ominous to find that occultism still rears its head in many
of our seals of learning and culture. It is, j)erhaps, a lilting
commentary on the times in whiedi we live.

APPENDIX

Further Experiments in Long-Distance Telepathy

Sinco goiii]^ to ])r(’ss iny atlontion lias drawn to a

scries of lon^-distancc <*x]>crinu‘nts carried out by Hr. S. (i.
Soal during his tenure ut the C'and)rid^e Ihuvevsity Ferrott
Stvidentsi\i]> in l^syehieal UesearcU in tUUh and wliieh were
r(‘p()rtt‘(i in the Journal of the Society for l^sychical Re¬
search (XXXV, Ht50, |)|).257-272). Th(‘s<‘ <‘xp<‘rinu‘nts

doserv<* sonic connnent :

ThcTO were two series <J‘ ex])eriments ; in ca(*h Mrs. (b
Stewart w^as tiu' pcrci}>i<‘n(. In iJie first, (Inr t(‘lepathie
agent was situated in Cam bridges and the jicrcipient in
Richmond, a distance of sonu‘ fifty miles.

Tiie seor<*s w(‘re not significant, though in control
experiments ” in wliicli Mrs. Stewart and anoiluT agent
sat in adjoining rooms (and which wtre held a few minutes
aft(‘r (‘acli h)ng-dist€‘inc(? session) highly successful scor<‘s
were obtaiiU‘d. All score slieets were kc]>t in tri])li(*a.ti;
and eff<*ctiv<‘ jirccautions tak<*n to obviate any possiblir
charge of fraud or collusion. Had this scries of long-distance
experiiri(‘iifs yield<*d significant results. SoaPs jiosition
would hav(‘ been unassailalile.

In the second s(Ti<‘s of experiments llu‘ ]HTcij)i<ait, Mrs.
Stewart, was situated in Antwerj), Relgium. and the two
agents in London. The check-up indicated that this series
involving a. total of 1,2()<) (‘ard-guesses, was highly su(‘cessfui.
Nevertheless it is only fair to jioint out that Soal lu'glected
to take th<' same pr(‘cautions whicli characterised tlu* Cam-
bridgt'-Richmond s<*ries with Mrs. Stewart and his jirevioiis
experiments with Shackle!on. These precautions, as just

491

492

Tiik Psyc holoc.y of the OcriTi/r

noted, obviated the slightest possibility of fraud. But in
the Antwerp-London experiments sueh precautions were
not taken : Soal himself had access to both Mrs. Stewart’s
score sheets and his own list of random numbers belbre he
handed them ov(T to a colleague for checking.

Soal could so easily have avoided this situation, that it
raises the question why he favoured such a procedure.
w^ell knew that such a j)rocedure would lay this important
series of experimenis oj)en to criti(‘isin on grounds that
either his own figures or tlK>se of his percipient could have
been altered to j)rodace the desired result. . In view of his
pr(‘vious j)recautions to obviate su(*h charges it se(?ms
curious that he should have neglected the one obvious stei>
which would have rend<Ted these Antw<^rp-London ex¬
periments completely foolproof.

The experimental ju’oof of su(*h metaphysical hypotheses
as telepathy and clairv<»yance (if such a thing is indeed
possible) requires that the experiments be not only con¬
vincing in themselves but totally foolproof, and that th<*y
shall 1)(‘ proved foolproof. Only tluai can the s(*i(‘ntist be
certain that the (^\p(Timeuts contained no Haw or fraud
and that they will stand the test of time. In point of fa(*t
no such cxperin\ci\tal }wo(>f lias ever been produced by jiara-
psychologists, and the experiments of Dr. Soal arc no ex¬
ception.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

The following lisi of words has been specially rompilrd to
help the reader xehose knowledge of psychology and psychical
research is Tnnited. Technical terms mentioned only once
in the book have ))of necessarily been included.

jAlcknkstiiksia. An intonsc IVciing of (Icpcrsornilisatioii.

An acute sensation of liaviiig no material ( xistene**.
See Dkpkrsonai ksatk>n.

Ac’f)UMKTER. See ATn)IOMKTKR.

Aestivation. “ Summer sleepThe hal:>it of some
members of tin* animal kingdom to pass the sum¬
mer montlis in a state of (•atale})sy or “ suspended
animation to avoid the rigours of great heat
and ilvought. Cf. IIibkunatton.

Afteh-imagk. The temporary continuation of a seiisor\'
experience after the original stimulus has goiu*.

Agent. Means teleiJathic agent. The pcTson who does
the “ transmitting ” in telejjathie experiments.
Cf. Percipient.

Alternating Peksonaiaty. See Dual Personality.

Amnesia. Loss of memory. A partial or eomj)lete in¬
ability to reciill or identify past experiences.

Anaesthesia. Partial or complete absence of the sense' of
touch.

Analgesia. Loss of sensitivity to pain.

493

404

TuF PsYrilOT.OOY OF TIIK OcClJLT

Animal Magnktism. Mesnu^r’s term for hypnotism, basted
on the incorrect notion that the phenomena ob-
s<*r\ed were due to the emanation of a ma^n(‘ti(*
tin id or force.

Anopsia. Blindness.

Antiii{opol()(;y. The seicmtifie study of the human race
in all its asp(*ets, j)artieularly the study of Ix^ha vioiir.
l)eliefs, trails and customs in primitiv<* races.

Aphonia. An inability to utter vocal sounds.

Atha. a term common in spiritualism and similar cults
denotin<^ anytliin<r from a halo to a coloured irridt's-
cciHT (*manatin^ from ]>crsons, animals, and inani¬
mate ohj(‘cts, especially magnets.

Astkoloov. Divination by studying the conformations
of the heav(‘nly bodi<‘s. Xo (‘oiuu^ction with
scicntilic astronomy.

Attdiometkjl a device for determining the smallest sounds
which a p(‘rson can liear.

Ai tistic Thinking. The gratification of unfulfilled longings
by imaginary phantasy.

Ai:tomati(’ Writing. See Autonog a a phy.

Ai"roM ATiSM ; AdJ , Automatic. Any activity performed
without the conscious awareness of the individual
concerned, or in which th<‘ normal exercise of the
will is in abeyance.

AutonogiiaphY. Automatic writing. There are several
distinct forms of autonograjihy, ranging from purely
automatic activity of the hand while the subject’s
attention is directed elsewJiere, to consciously
writing down words which appear to the writer to
enter his mind from an ext^‘^nal sour(;e.

Autonomic Nervous SYvStem. That jiart of the nervous
systen which regulates many of the internal organs
of the body whose functions arc not subject to the
control of the will.

(il>f)SvSAKY OF TkRMS

405

Ai’TosoroMr IlAi.iJTcrxATiox. An hallucination which de¬
picts one’s own body or sell’. If this ph'*nomcnon
is accofnj)ani(*d t)y delusion lh(‘ pcr(‘ij)i(‘nt may
believe tliat he is actually se(‘in|^ }iims(‘lf from a
d<‘ta.ehed vi(‘wpoint.

Ar rosiuauiSTioN. Su^oi stion which cmanat< s from the
individual himself. ([[. IlK'i'KRosrcciKsriox.

Awakfn from Hypnosis. The traditional term usrd to
denote* the* resum])tion of the* normal state* (usually
at the* e'ommanel of the* operator) by a person who
has be‘v*ii re‘nde‘r<*(l abnormally sijmr(‘stibie- liy hyp-
not ie mrtliods.

O^AIMFLARIFS. The* luinute blood \<*sse‘ls whi(*h (*arry the
blood through the* tissues of tlie l)ody.

(’atalkpsy. tK*ne‘T'ally sjxaking. a (‘ondition of mus(*ular
rigidity sonielime‘sae‘e*omj)anie*d by une*ouse*iousnt‘ss,
Idastie* e*atale psy (e*s|)<*eially found in s(*}iizopiire*n-
ies) denote*s tliat the* limbs are* move'abler aiiel retain
the? jaisition in wliie*]i the*y are* pla(‘e‘el. Often a
hysterical synelrome. It may be proe]uee*el by gr(*at
eme)tionaI shock or artitieially in hy})nosis.

t' vTAPLKXY. May be take*n as syne)nyme)us with Catalkpsa".

The* teTiu is used most e>ften, howe?ve*r, in eonnetetion
with animals.

CKUEURAn. Pe‘rtaining te) the brain.

Ckrkhkai. (’e)RTi:x. Tlie "'grey matt<*r ” of tlie* brain.

The ne*e)pallium. It is resj)e)nsib!e feir all tlie highe'r
mental aetivitie.s.

CllOHFA. The disease* kneiwn as St, Vh'tus's I)ane*(*. Some*-
time*s imitate*d by liysterieal perseins. Inve)lve*s
sjiasmexlie* Iwite'hings of the face*, shoulde*r e>r arm
muscles.

Cj.airvoyanci:. Purporteelly the? cognition of objects or
events by me*ans other than through the live? senses.

496

The Psychology oe the Occult

CoKNESTHESiA. The (lillusc mass of bodily si iisnlioiis whicli
to make ii}) one’s feeling of tiredness, welbbeing,
(liseomfort, etc. The general Ijody-sense.

Complex. Associations of emotionally charged ide as whicii
are re pressed and of which the' indivielual is unaware*.
They are usually linked to some instinctive urge*
wliose e'xj)rcssion is undesireel by the j)(*rson con¬
cerned. Srr It EJMiKSSTON.

Consciousness. The subjective asj)ect of l)rain activity.

The iinexplaineel p}ienome‘non \vhi(‘h conveTts
eleedro-physiological ehang<*s in the brain into
awar<‘ne‘ss, fe*eling, experiencing, reme*!nbe*ring,
kne)wing, se^eing, he aring, etc.

Critical Katio. A teedinical term used in statistical
analysis and ]>robability mathematics. As applied
to tek^jiathy and elairvoyanex' e*ard-gucssing ex¬
periments it is a measure of wlietluT or not the*
number of correct guesses is significantly greate.*r
than chance or luck weiuld account for.

Cryptomnesia. Literally hidden memory The spon-
tane*ous recalling eif events ejr items of knowledge
without lieing able tei re*eall the circumstances or
time when the knowledge was originally gainetl.

Crystal Gazing. See Scrying.

Cue. An obscure identifying mark. A scarcely perceptible
sensory stimulus. A sensory stimulus not per¬
ceived consciously, but which is nevertheless
registered and is responsible for many correct
“ intuitions

Cutaneous. Pertaining to the skin.

H^EjA-vu. An illusion of memory'^ in which a person
believes he has seen a thing, person or scene never
previously encountered in actual fact. A particu¬
lar form of Paramnesia (q.v.).

Delusion. A mistaken belief; a false conviction. A
delusion may be permanent or transitory.

Glossary of Tkrms

407

Dkpkrsoxalisatiox. a of imrcnlit v. Loss of the

sense of jXTsonal ichaitity. or a seiisatio]i oi‘ liaving
no niaiiTial (‘xis1(*ne(\

DKRVisn. A nieniher of oiu^ of the .Moslem orders or
fraterniti(‘s praetisin^r aiis1<‘rit y or as(*(‘lieisni.
MosI mdorioiis an- tie- .Mawlawis or whirlin^r
(l(‘rvisfK‘s and tlx- Hifa’is. or '' Imwlin^v d(^r>
visiles

DiSSoeiA'noN. No sinirU- siMiltnee deliiiition available.

Denotes amongst oilier thin^^s lliai eoiuTent
mental aetivily may. in ((-rlain einaimslanees,
operate more or less independently ol’ the main
nx-nta) syst<an whieli erinslilules the normal eon-
seioiis personality. NVr (liaj). .‘3.

Divination. Diseo\(‘rv (»f the unknown or future liy
supernatural means.

Dtvinino Hod. A hirked twig or stic*k of springy wood,
whieli. wh(Mi h<‘ld in a eertain position of tension,
will gr<‘ally magnify small movianents of the arms
and wrists. It (‘an also lx* made of metal. See
Water Dtvinino.

DoppELOANTiER. A “ double A ghost- or siiirit-eounter-
part of ono-self. Tlx* doj)p(‘lganger was a familiar
theme in Vietorian lit(*rature.

Dowsinc;. The divination of wat(*r. metallic or(‘s. missing
jK‘rsons, etc., through the use of a forkcxl rod.
]x*n(luhim or similar instrument.

Dual Personauty. A hysterical syndrome* in whi(‘li two
distinct pcTsonalities a.pp(*ar to <‘xist alt(*rnately
(and som(dim(*s siinulta.iH*ousIy) in the same
individual. Often (‘aeh jx*rsonality appears to have
no direct knowledge of the existence of tlx* otluT.

Ectoplasm. A visible “ emanation ’’ from the body of
a spiritualistic medium; invariably faked.

498

Thf Psychology of the Occult

Eidetic Imagery. Meutal images of unusual vividn<\ss
which many cliildren can project (on to a screen
provided for tlu^ purpose) with the clarity approach¬
ing that of a visual hallucination. It is comucted
with tlu' imagery of memory and imagination.
\Vith some subjects the projected imagcr\' is
eliangeable, following the How of ideas. Com-
}>arativ<'ly rare in adults.

Empirk al. l{as(‘d upon experiment, obserxation or e\-
peri('n(‘t‘. as oj)j>os(‘d to iheortiical.

Endophasia. “ Silent speech The silent re production
of words or phrases without observable activity
of the organs of speech. ‘‘ .Menitally " articulating
we)rds eir sentences. *SVv rNce>NScious Whispering

Endophastc Enneurosis. This t< rni denote s that me iitally
articulating a word, or thinking i»f a word, or
meTcIy visualising it nuaitally. may prodne-e slight
articulatory movements of the voe^al apparatus.
It is often the e*xplanation of purportesl esases of
telepathy, clairvoyance, etc.

Enn euros is. Ser I n .v k k vatiox .

Eptstemologa’. The' branch of philosophy which de'als
with the nature of knowledge* and knowing, i.e*.
how we know and what we mean by “ knowing ”,
witli reference to the limitations of knowh'dge and
tin* dilTerent modes of knowledge such as deduction,
induction, direct expiM-icnce, firactical knowledge.
menK»ris<*(l knowledge, etc.

Erythema. Congestion of the capillaries bidow the skin,
producing redness and swelling.

ESP. Extra-sensory pcTception.

Euphoria. An abnormal degree of elation, optimism and
feeling of well-being, often symjitomatic of neurosis
or insanity. In its non-tcchnical sense it also
connotes contentment or happiness.

(ii.ossARY OF Terms

499

P]XTRA-SENS()RY Peik’eptiox. I)<‘fiiied in the Journal of
Parapsychology as response to an external event
not presented to any known sense It is a
somewhat (]n(‘stion-begging term w^hieli eml)raees
tel(*pathy, elairvoyanee and preeo^nition.

f^AKiR. A Hindu nli^nous mtndieant. espeeially one
who elaiius supernatural powers.

FLA(iELLAXTisM. Self-whipping undtr the iiilluenee of
t‘(*staey. dni^s. eroticism or hysterical compulsion.

Fucjok. a temporary forgetfulness of personal identity
and th(‘ j)ast, with a tendency to wander from home.

FuNe'rroNAL Disokdee. An impairment te) one or more
of the body's normal functions whi(*h can not be
trae(*el to any organic or struedural defect. Func¬
tional disorders anel disi^ases ar(‘ therefore usually
attributable to psychological caus(*s. They are
cennmonly the' pre)due*t of hysteria, e.g. functional
paralysis, deafn<‘ss, local afialgesia. c'te.

^Jlossolalia. Sjxaking in a language' fabricate^d by
the individual himself. wSome‘tinu‘s occurs in hys¬
terical jiersons or in mcdiumistie trance, though
it is rare. (f. XENooi.f)SSiA.

Glove-Anaesthesia. (dove-anaesthesia, stocking-anaes¬

thesia and hemianalgesia were terms first used by
Janet to d<‘scribe hysterical anaesthesia of the
hand, feet and om* side ()f the body respectively.
The areas affected conform to the patient’s naive
ideas and do not correspond with the correct
neurological patterns.

500

Tin: P.sy('ii(>i.(>(;y or Tin: (Kci i/r

Halltcination. a sfiisory pm-qitiou which occurs
without a corr<‘sj)(»n(liiifj sensory stimulus, duv* to
faulty ruiu*tiimin<r of the perception-nicchanism
in th(‘ l)rain. Tlie percipient may se<‘ or hear,
witli perfect clarity, objects or sounds which liavt'
no objective existence*. iSVr (1iaj). 7. (]f. Iija;sion

and PsiUTDo-IlArnrciNATioN.

Hat<uspi( ATioN. Divination ))y insjxs'tin^^ ihc (-ntrails
of saerifie<Ml animals and birds,

Hkmi ANOPSIA, lieint; able* to see in erne half e)j‘ ilu* \'isual
fie*lel only.

1If:mipi.i:(;ia. Paralysis o\‘ one* sielt* of the* l)e)ely only.

HETKKosxi(i(n:STie)N. Su"^i'stie>n w'hi(*h is gi\'e‘n by anedlier
person as elistiiie-t fre>m suggestion whie‘h sj)rings
from the individuars own mental prexTsscs.

IItrkknatton. '' Winter slea-p The* habit of many ani¬
mals to })ass the* winter in a state e>f <*oma e)r torpid¬
ity, as a ])r()tectiv<* measure* against e*old and lack
of* food. (]f. Aestivation.

Histrionic. Pertaining te) acting, or dramatic rcpiTsenta-
tiou.

Ha'pera(’U 1TA\ Or, rneire stri<*tly sj)eaking, se*nse)ry hyper¬
acuity. An unusual elegr(*e of se*nsitiveness of
sigfit, licaring, touch, sme*ll or taste*. Due to
j)syche)le)gie*al e*auses alone. (]/\ Hyperaksthesia.

Hyim:ract\sia. Abnormal keenm*ss e)f he‘aring.

Hyperaestiie.sia. An unusual ele*gre*e of se*nsitivity of the
ae*tual sense ejrgans. Cf, Hyperacuity.

Hyperaphia. Abnormal sensitivity of the* sense of te)ueli.

Hypermnesia. Unusual or extraordinary ability te> recall
or remember past cx[)eriences.

Hyperpnea. Or Polypnea. Very rapid breathing. Some*-
time*s a fiystcrical symptom.

HVperprosexia. Extreme coneentration of the attention
on a part of the tiehl of observation to the exclusion
e)f everything else.

(il.OSSAKY (»F TkRMS

501

HypNACMKiK'. PcTtiiiliilig to ih<* iraiisiforv stage l)etvveea
waking and slee])ing. Half asleep.

H ypn(k;kni(’. Sleep-produeing. Indiieing hypnosis or
t?'anee states by methods w[n<*h lirst bring ab(»ut
drowsiness or skrp.

IlYeNf)Sis. A stat(“ of tranee or inereased suggesti})ilily
brought about by lii’st inducing drowsiness. s|(H*p
oi' a state resembling sl(‘(‘f). through llu* use of any
of a number of imdhods.

H YPNoTiiKKAPY. Th<‘ use of liyjmosis in tlu* cure or alh'via-
tion of tlis(»rd(Ts, partic*ularly thost* of hysteri(*al
origin.

Hypnotism. Tin* study of hy])nosis. Ttu* ])raetiee or art
of indiieing hy|>nosis.

Hypo( noNt)UiASis. Or hypochondria. A morbid eonei ru
with one's health and an exaggerat(*d anxiety over
trifling ailments. May become so scvtTe as
seriously to affect the health (►f thf j)atit‘nl and evt ii
lead to death.

Hysteria. No g<*nerally a(*eepted single-s(‘nf<‘n(*e (hdinition
available. The term denot<‘s a form of mental
\UsovvWv jwodweiug syndromes ranging from mild
mental instability to functional paralysis, somnam¬
bulism. trance state s, or loss of memory, etc. Srr
Chap. 5.

IIystkro-Epilkpsy. Tlu* onslaught of violent convulsions
similar to an attack of epilepsy but hysterical in
origin.

Ideomotor Movements. Slight involuntary muscular
movements whi<*b an* an imlireet expression of a
pr(‘vailing id<‘a in th(‘ mind.

Illusion. A faulty s<*nsorv jKTeej)tion : <‘.g.. a cow is s(‘en
in the dusk wliieh on closer ajiproaeb is re<*ognised
to b(* nothing rnon* than a busli. There are many
diffenait types of illusion. (]f. Hallucination.

502

ThK PsY( IfOl.OOY OF TllF OcC’ULI’

Imac.kky. ('ollectivo term for mental images. What one
can ‘‘ sec in the mind's ey(‘ ” ; as for example
when recalling a well remembtTcd se(‘ne, or mentally
visualising an imaginary one. Imagery may per¬
tain to any of the live senses, though it usually
refers to thos(‘ of vision or h(*aring.

Indicium. 1*1. Indk‘ia. Sign, mark, indication, pointer,
clue or cue.

iNNKiiVATioN. N(‘rvous (‘xcitation or stimulation of a
muscle or other orjran.

tJu-ju. Native* magic, charm, sjxdl, idol or fetish in West
Africa.

Kl iNF:STnKSiA. Or kinesthesis. Th(‘ muscle sense

The sensations whi(*h attend tlu* movcnicnt of the
niuscl(*s, tendons and joints.

Ijabiogkaiui. a d(*vice for recording lip movements
while either speaking or thinking.

Lama. A Tibetan monk or priest belonging to the sect of
Buddhism known as Lamaisrn. Many of them
claim occult powers and practise asc<*ticism.

Laryngoidiapii. a device for recording and measuring
the movements of the larynx, while either sp(‘aking
or thinking.

Leviiation. T1h‘ claim made by mediums and other
occultists that they can make their bodies leave
the ground by supernatural means.

Lyc’aNTH ROPY. Beliefs and practiites based upon the
purported ability of (certain persons to transform
themselves into animals, (‘specially wolves. In
psychiatry it denotes obsessions and delusions of
a similar character. Cf. Zoanthropy. See Chap.
15.

(Ilossary of Terms

503

M

JLt-Ikdium. Adj. Meijiitmistk \ A jK^rsoii who claims or
bdittvcs in his or licr ability to contact the sj)irits
of the dead. In psychical res<‘arch lh(*\’ arc often
divided into two cat<‘gories; i.<‘. mental “

mediums wlio act as the moiith-j)i<‘ce of discarnate
spirits; and "'physical*’ mediums who specialise
in the production of visible sjhrit forms, ectoplasm,
moving lights, movem(‘nt of oV>jects at a distance,
raps, knocks, etc. Sec Chap. 11,

IWkdhtmistic Tkanck. The* fa(*ulty which sonu* mediums
have* of lu'ing able to induce at will states of con-
sciousn<‘ss involving varying d(*grc(‘s of mental
dissociation and subsequent amne*sia. Such trance
states are often simulated.

MENORrtFiAr.iA. Kxcessivc menstrual discharge.

Mesmerism. An obsolete term for Hypnotism which was
abandoned because of its assocMation with super¬
stition anel in(*orrect tlKM>rising.

Mftapuysics. That branch of philosophy wliicfi deals
with the ultimate nature of the universe, mind and
man.

M KTAPSYcaiics. See Parapsvc iiolooy.

Mimetic \ Imitative.

Mind, the. A vague* tcTin elcrive-d from philosophy defined
variously as "" the seat of consciousne‘Ss that
whicli causevs our thoughts” etc.

Mirrok-VVkitincj. See Sthepho(;kaphia.

Modits Operand!. The method or system of operation.

The* actual manner in which a thing works. The
explanation of how a thing is done.

Monotdeic SoMNAMiUTijsM. A hyst:*rical malady in which
the patient carriers out the same ritual or pantomime
each time a somnambulic attack occurs.

Monopleoia. Paralysis of a single group of musclcjs,
espc‘cially a limb.

TiOl Tuk PsYt’n(>i.()(iY c)i' TiiK 0(xui/r

Mn.TiPLF. Pek.soxai.ity. Tht‘ apparnit cxistriur of two
(ir more alti'rnatiuj^lf prrsoiialitirs in th(‘ same person;
<‘a(*}i p<‘rs()iiality may ha\'e no ('onseioiis knowL'd^e
of the existence of tiu* otlaa’s. It is a hysterical
syndrome. Str Dual PkKvSoxai.itv.

MT'S( LE-KKAi)iX(i. The art of iiderrin^ the thoujrlits of a
person in simple situations finding <miI the

natun* or location of hidden ohjeetsi Mirou^h his
inv<»lnntarv irmseular movennait^.

Ec‘Hoimri.iA. S<‘\nal assaults on c*(>rpses.

XEc.A'nvi: IIaei.uc’INatiox. This is said to occur \vh(‘n a
hv])notis(‘<| subject app<‘ars no lonj^(‘r to see e(‘rtain
persons or ol)j(‘ets which tlu' op(Tator has told him
art* no longer there. It is, at most, a ttmiporarv
delusion.

XErKASTiTEXiA. A (‘oudiliou eharaet(a-is(‘d by such symp¬
toms as lack of m<*ntal and ])hysieal vi^^our, height¬
ened fatigability, insomnia. h(‘adaeht*s, upset
digestion and oth(*r minta* ailmt nts. Maiiy neuras-
th<‘nies liave fdiobias of ont* sort or another.

Xi:rK().si.s. A group of disorders. psychol(»gieal in origin,
wliieh do not normally warrant tht* individual
being sent to an institution. Well kutJWTi e.xamples
are anxit*ty ntairosis and hypoehtmdriasis. A
distinction is usually made bt‘tween neurosis and
hysteria, Cf. PsYtaiosiS.

Xymfiioloepsy. a state of virtual tranet* brouglit about
bv (Toti(‘ da\’-dr(*aming.

Obeau. a speeit s of magic or sort^ery practist^d in the
[W(*st Indies.

Occau/i’. Pertaining to the siijuTiiatural, magical, or (^soterrie.

Operator. The person who does the hypnotising in
hypnotic experiments.

(iLnssM<v or TriiMs

505

OuijA-iioAiO). A Ixiju’d on wliich the letters of the alplinbet
an' jirranjTtMl in ;i eirele, togetln'r with any other
si|[rMs re([uire(i. A pointer, moved autoinatieally
by the hands of two or more persons, spells out
nu ssa^es ; oflen use<l b.y spiritualists.

p

M, AKAMNi:si.\. ^alse memorv Distorted rc'eolleetion
or mem<»ry <d‘ some past e\ei\t. It may refer to
tin- inclusion of false* details, tiu* omission of details,
or the* distorti(»n of the' tina -retereiu'e's.

Pakanoia. a form of insanity eharaet(Tis(‘d by fixed and
systematised de'lusions.

Pauanokmal. The parapsychologist s teran for what tlic
scientist would call the sujx'niatural.

Pahapij:(;ia. Paralysis of th<‘ lower limbs or the* lower
half of the body.

PahAPS veiiorexjY, In priueij)le. tlx.' apj)lieation of psycho¬
logical teehniepK's in studying such purported
plienonx'na as (I'lepathy, prc'eognition, elairv^oyaiiee,
psyeliokinesis, and the (x*eult |)owers of mediums,
('te. Also known as im‘ta))sy('hies. scientific
(X'eultism. and psyehi<‘al research.

Pkiu’IPIKnt. 1 . The jx'rson wdio (‘ndtavours to receive the
tlioughts, messages, words or symbols whieli another
j)erson is trying to traJisinit t<*le])athieall\’.

2. The ])erson who endeavours to apprelumd the
iiatun* of eoneealed (»bj('ets or sym}>ols in clairvoyant
experiments. (]f. Aoknt.

Pmi.os<)PiiA\ The non-t‘mj>irieal study of a wid(' grouj) of
intell<*etual subjects siudi as the nature of know¬
ledge ; the iiatnre of man, mind and the universe
theory of logic*; ethics, aesthetics and semantics.
See Eptsi’pmolo(;y and Mktaphysks.

Phobia. An exaggerated or unjustifial)I(‘ fear. Typical
examples : fear of confined spaces, dreaci of nu'cting
strangers.

506

TiiK Psychology of tul Ooc’Ult

Phystologk^ai.. Periaiiiiiig to the runctioiis, activities aJ)d
structure of th(‘ organs, tissues and c(‘lls of the
living body.

PK. See Psychokinesis.

PLANCHE'j'n:. A tu^art-shaped board supported by two
legs and a pencil us(‘d for obtaining automatic
writing tliroiigh contact with tlie hands of one or
morc^ persons. It is often used by spiritualists
and isoneof thcdevi<*esof the professional medium.
Cf. OUIJA BOAIU).

Points de Hkpeue. Points of light or spe(*ks of dust, etc*.,
on the surface of a cTvstal or other scrying-speeu-
lum, to which some servers trace the* genesis of
tlieir haiiucinatorv images.

Poltergeist. A mischievous spirit.

PoLYiDEic SoMNAMiUTLiSM. Tlic average sleej)-walking
performance ; varic^d behaviour results in contrast
to that ol)ser\ed in Monoideic Somnambulism.

PosT-TiYPNoTic SuciGESTioN. Au ordcr given during hyp¬
nosis which the subj(;et later carries out in the wak¬
ing state, usually without recalling the order
originally givcMi hini.

Pi{Ec<K;Nrri()N. TIu' parapsychologist's term for jirophecy.

The ])urported cognition of future* events l>y means
othcT than through the five senses, guessing,
eoineidence or inference.

PiiESTiniGiTArioN. ('onjuring. Sleight of hand.

Prodromal. PcTtaiuiug to the iirst indi(‘ations of an im¬
pending disease. That which gives warning of
incipient illness.

PsEX Do-UALLUCiNATioN. Aiiv subj<;clive (‘xperience wdiich
is rem(‘mber<*d as having all the vividness usually
associated with a genuine* s(*nsorv hallucination,
but wdiich is attributable to delusion, illusion,
dreams, dreamlike states, prolonged aft<*r-images,
suggestion, hypnosis, trance* states of consciousness,
or quirks of memory. Pseudo-hallueinations play
a large ])art in the j)erpetuatie)n of ee*rtain e)ccult
beliefs.

(ilXKSSARY OF TkUMS

r>()7

Psi-PiiKNOMKNA. A mo(l<‘rii tcTMi wliicb cini lx* n'^anlod
as synoiiynioijs with “ psyrhic pheiior»i(‘ua It
i‘n\briK*i‘s all snvh ))\irporl<al phcnonuna as tx‘k‘-
patliy, clairvoyance, prccoj^nitioii, t<‘l< kincsis, etc.

PsYrfiASTHFNr.x. A fV)rin of neurosis charachTised by lack
of ( ruT^y, <h‘cision, and conctiUration. and by
doubts, fears, phobias and fcelin^js of dcj)ersonaI-
isation and unnality.

PsYt’iiiATKY. Th<‘ brancli of iucdi(‘in<* which deals with
th(‘ trcatnuait of all types of nu‘ntal disorders.

Psychic. A term eoninion in spiritualistic cireks denoting
liinit<‘d supernatural facility. A medium or
lairvoyaiit. (It is also a normal synonym for
'' psye}iol(^gi(‘al

PsYC’iiU Ai. Kksi:ak(’ji. Srr Pah vpsvc'n()i.o(;v.

PsYcnnr Hkamnc;. Healing In sup<‘rnatnral means, bascxl
on the belief that se>me inclividuals are able to cure
disease* through \artue of some mysteTious occult
power e)r through the* nu^dia of unknown rays and
emanations.

PsYC HOANAi.YSis. A s])(*<*ial form of psychothcraj>y, origin-
atenl by Freaid, whie-h e‘mphasise*s the* iiiiportance*
of unconscious me*ntal proce‘ssi\s in causing ne‘rve>us
disoreleTs.

PsYcuoKiNKSis. The pur]>orted me)ve*me‘nt e>f e>bjee*ts
by mere ly willing '' or otherwise* withcait physical
means.

PsY(’n(U.o(;v. Ne) coinju'eluaisive* singlc-sentcne‘c delinition
available. Uonghly. the scientific study of the*
mind and nu'iital proe^c^ssc's.

Psyc’IIOMKTKY. Hylomancy. Tlie pur}>orted supernatural
ae*quisitie)n e)f kne)wl<*dge l>y me‘diums or ‘‘sensi¬
tive's " through handling inanimate* objects. The
knowk*dge obtained usually j)ertains to the* history
of the object e)r to pe'ople ce)mu‘ct('d with it. Srr
Symi*atiiktu’ Ma(:ic\

Psychc)NEi:rosis. (lenerally \ised as a synonym for Neur¬
osis. (q.v.)

50S

Thk Psy(’ik>l(k;y ok tiik. Orcui/r

Psychopathology. T1i<‘ scientific study of* iiuMital dis¬
orders and mental factors in diseas(* ^(*ncrally.
As comj)arv*d \vitl» Psycmiathy which involves
trcatinvht of mental disorders.

Psychosis. Adj. Psyoiotic. Any scv<*rc mental disorder,
whether hronphf about by psycholoijical or physical
causes. More or less synonymous with insanity.

Psychosomatic. Pertainin«j to both mind and body ;

especially bodily disord(‘rs and physical symptoms
brought ab(»ut by psychological causes, and the
cun* of bodily disorders by psychotherapy.

Psy<’Hothkhapy. Adj. l^SYCHOTH^:RAPKCTic. Th(‘ tn‘a1 -
ment of disorders by psychological methods, such
as suKacstion. hypnosis, persuasion. rc-educati(ni
and psy(*hoana lysis.

IRlAD iKSTHKSiA. 1. Now often Used as a synonym for
Dowsing, ig-v,} 2. A cult whose exponents
attribute water divininjjf, psychic lualinjj, etc., to
the operation of* unkiK>wn rays. <*manations or
elcetronic for(*es.

Rappokt. a sj)ecial relationship between a hypnotised
su))ject and th<* operator, i?) which the subject
apparently hears the commands of the ojuTator
only and remains deaf to the commands of others.
At J)nc time believed to lie an ine vitable accompani¬
ment of hypnosis, it is now n*co^nised to be nothing
more than the product of suggestion or expectation
and is easily countered.

Ration ALISA rroN. Pniducing apparently logical or sensible
reasons to justify impulsive or irrational actions.

Rkphesston. Tfie tendency to exclude from conscious
awareness unpleasant or painful ideas or memories.
It is a normal psychological nuThanism, but when
ov'cr-worked it may lead to hysterical syndromes.

Hr:.sPAs. A Til)etan ascetic.

(iLOSSAKY OF TkRMvS

5()i)

iSrmzoiMiRKNiA. Fi)rni(Tly kmmii as deiiKutia praccox.

A type of insanity charactFrisc^d by dolnsions and
loss (if (‘ontact with the world of r(‘ality. The
])ati(‘nf Iiv<‘s in a world of his own imagination.
Cf , Du A I, Pfhsonauity.

ScRYiNO. The art of prcdtieing visual hallucinations or
project(‘d visual imagtTV through staring at clear,
translucent or bright objects. Oystal gazing is
a form of s(*rying in which th(‘ objet‘t stared at is
a solid glass I)all. Sir Chap. S.

Skanck. a sitting A term common to spiritualism
and psychical r<‘scarch denoting a gatlwTing of
persons for tin* purpose of witnessing or obtaining
spiritualistic phenomena. The modern s6inee
st<‘ms directly fnan the spirit-c\a»king })ractices
of th<‘ North American Indians, and was intro¬
duced into civilised society during the middle of
the nineteentli century.

Sknsohy. Pertaining to the five senses of sight, hearing,
touch: taste and smell.

Shaman. A medicine-man. A priest-magician. The term
was originally confined to the medicine-rnen of
nortliern Asia. Now it is used by anthropoh'gists
to denote a priest, medicine-man or wit(‘h-doctor
in any primitive n^ligion. Sec bellow.

ShamanIvSM. 1. Practices d<*signed to contrr>l. placate.

(•(unmunicale with or inlluen<*(‘ the spirits of natun'
or the dead. 2. The practice of magic or the
accpiiring of supernatural powers by th(‘s<' na‘ans.

SoMNAMBtUASM. Ordinarily means sleep-walking. In ]>s\ -
cliology the term covers a variety of hystf rical
and hypnotic behaviour in w’hich the individual's
normal waking consciousness is more or less in
abeyance.

Spk('ULUM. In refenaicc to scrying and crystal gazing
this term denotes any object used for tb(‘ j)urpose
of. obtaining projected visual imagery. See ScrV-

ING.

510

TuK PSYClfOl.OGY OF THK Oc(’UJ,T

Spirituaijsm. 1 . A branch of the Christian religion whose
ehief tenet is a. belief in the abilit y of e(‘rtain persons
to eontaet the spirits of the dead. 2. A modern
development of priniitivi* shamanism wliieh might
be defined as the cult of the spiritualistic* medium.
Sec Shaman. Medium, and Seance.

S.P.R. Soeiety for Psychical Research. Headcpiarters
in I^ndon.

Si iGMATA. Adj, Stigmatic. TIu* sup<Tnatural aj)p(*aran(*e
of the wounds or marks of the Crueifixion on
the bodies of saints and mystics. Wounds or
lesions brought about by non-physieal means.
See Chap. 14.

Stigmattst. One wlio claims to have expe^rieneed the
stigmata.

STREPiKKiHAPiUA. Mirror-vvritiug; spiegeLschrift. Writiiig
in which the characters an* reversed so that it
ap])(‘ars in normal form when lu^ld before a mirror.

Subconscious Mind. A confusing term. It denotes the
fact that niost of a person’s m(*ntal activity takes
place without any conscious awareness. See Chap.
2 .

Subcutaneous. Rencath the skin.

Subject. 1. A person who is used in psychological ex¬
periments. 2. A hypnotised person.

SuBTJMATioN. The deflection of primitive impulses into
useful or socially acceptable activities.

Suggestible. ITnusual susceptibility to the suggestions^
authority or influenc<* of others. Easily influenceil
by suggestion (r/.u.).

Suggestion. The inculcation of ideas and beliefs in a
person’s mind while his critical faculties are more
or less dormant. The orders given by an operator
to a hypnotised subject. See (’hap. 4.

SuG(;r:STioN Therapy. The use of waking or hypnotic
suggestion in the cure or alleviation of disorders,
jiarticularly those of psychological origin.

(Glossary of Tkrms

511

Superstition. Crcdiilily rc^ardiu^ Hio sujicrnatural.

Sympatiif-tk’ Ma(uc. Magical and divinatorv practices
and l)cliei‘s which arc based on the notion that
things similar in form or quality have an occult
affinity. The notion extends to objects. j)coi>le
or ev(‘nts which arc in any way (*oiinected (in facd,
or in the iniag*nation). Examples : the sprinkling
of water on the ground in rain-making rituals ;
]>ersonal Ix^longings used h)r th(‘ casting of liarmful
spells against their owners, or use d as psycdiometric
(»bjccts.

Symi*tomatk* Cuhk. Removal of the overt symptoms
of a (lis<*as<‘ without curing the disease* itself. It
is often the only way of alleviating iiuTirable
maladies.

Syndhomk. a number of symptoms which together indi¬
cate the nature* of a disease or nuaital disorder.

jl^ABLK-TUKNlXe;, -TAPPINU OR -TU/riNT;. The* Use of a
liglit table* for con\e*rting aute)matic e)r involuntary
muscular movements into audible* sounds or visible
(or otherwise significant) movements. A device
commonly use*d by spiritualists with the aim of
obtaining answers to epiestions addressexi t(» the
spirits of the dead.

Tak(;kt Eari). The particular card eir symbol (in a series)
on which the agent or pere*ipient is concentrating
his attention in telepathy or elairve>vant e\p(*ri-
ments. Str Zf.nkr ( akds.

Tei.kkinesis. The ee|uivalcnt of psychokinesis in spirit¬
ualistic circles.

Telkoi.oou’al. That which serves an end or purpose.

Tfj.epa'J'my. Purportedly th<‘ (*ominunication iH^tween one
mind and another by means other than through
the five senses. Thought-transference.”

512

Thk Psy(;iiomh;v ny rmo Occ ri/r

Tiianatomania. Origiimlly ii psy(*ln;i1ric ti'rm : now also
Tisod by Siam* anthropologists to (hmoto that sug¬
gestion, i!it<‘ns(* <*xpectation, fear, or belief in inagie,
may, among j)rimitiv(‘ eommunities, produce a
eoma r(‘snlting in ch'ath.

Tiiaumatt;H(;is'J'. A wonder work(‘r.

Tiii:rapi:utt(\ Healing: eurative.

Topoalc;ja. A localised sensation of j>ain witliont any
(‘orresponding organic cause*. An lialln(*inat(»ry
sensation of pain.

TKAN(’f;. A popular term loosely used to denote a nnmia r
of dilTering psychological states characterised by
temporary uiiawareness of the* imm(‘diate environ¬
ment or the suspension <if normal voluntary actix ity.
It may denote* total un(‘ons(*iousn(‘ss as in exlr(*me
(!atalepti(*tram^e Other prelixes are hypn<»ti(*-,
ecstatic-, inediumistic-, somnambulic-, yoga-.

Tumo. The mystical forc<* l)y which Tibetan asccti<*s
(‘laiin to keep themselves warm in sexarc cold.

IT

NCONSc’ious \\ uiSPKHiN(;. Thc wliisjiercd utleraiK*(*
of intelligibh* vocal sounds without tin* p<*rs<»n
concerned being axvare of it. Str Knoopiiasia.

Urticarea. Nettle rash. A disorder aH(*cting tin* skin
characterised by raised blotcdies. xveals or patches
resembling those produced by thc sting of a mdtle.

V . . .

T ASOMOTOR System. The me(*hanism which controls
the normal dilation and constriction of the blood
vessels.

Voodoo. Witchcraft or black magic pra(*tised by negro<*s
in the West Indies and the United States.

W

T T AKiNO Su(icJESTi«)N. Suggestion given while the sub¬
ject is in the waking, as f)ppos<-(l to the hyptMiu'.
state.

(JloSvSary of Terms

513

VVatkr-1)ivixin(;. 1. Tlu* purported divination of water
by orcult means, usually with tin* aid of a forked
Iwiy or rf)d. 2. The (l(d<*etion of water by sub-
eoriseiously registering iiiinute surfaee iiidieations,
whieli prodiK'e an automatic* retlex of arms and
wrists tliereby causing a dippirj^ or risiu/^^ aetion
of a <li\dnir»^ rod held in the hands.

Werk-Wolf {FolkUrre), A wolf-man *; one who can
transf(»rm himself, or is periodically transfornud,
into a wolf. Str chap. 15.

5^kno(ji.ossia. Or xenoglossis. The uncontrollable iitter-
anee of gibberisti or uuinU‘lligil)l(‘ sounds under
hystt rieal eom|>ulsinn. Speakirig in tongues
fy’ (h.ossolai.ia.

"\^o<;a. a eolleetive term lor tin* various syst(*nis of
nuiilal and physical training (in India) designed
to make the mind function at higher levels than
normal. These systems are often sul)sumed by
advane<‘d metaphysical and mystical thcivrv. liest
known are Rajah Yoga, llatlia Yoga and Bliakti
Yoga, which lav the chief <*mphasis f>n AVill, (\)urage
and liove respectively. See chap. lb.

0?ie who practices yoga.

iZiENEH Cards. Or " ESP*’ cards. Cards bearing one
of the fiv<‘ symbols, star, circle, wavy lines, cross
and rectangle, which the percipient has to try
and guess in telepathy and clairNoyant exj)eri-
ments. A pack or deck contains twenty-five
cards. Hn e cards bearing a star, live a circle, (‘te.

ZoANTiiKOPY. A form of paranoiac insanity in wliich the
patient has delusions of lieing an animal.

ZoERASTY. Sexual relations with animals.

Zombie. A corpse reanimated with a mechanical resemb¬
lance to life by sorcery; esj)eeially in Haiti.

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Maxwki.i.

Tiioma.';. .1. F.

Thomas. N. W.
Tjiompsox. H.

'rhomp.son. .1. J.
Tnooi,K.ss. R. n.

Tichy, H.
Tili.yaki), R. j.

Ti.sohne«. R.

'rROI^AND. L. T.

Trowbriihjk, W.
R. II.

Tuckett, I. Lloyd

Introduction a la Mctfipsycliicjiu* Hu¬
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Hypnotisnic, Suggestion <t Lectunrs
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Small Water Suppliivs. London 1912.
Thr Value of Psychical Research to
a Physician. Journal of Mental Sci¬
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Hevond Normal Cognition. Boston
1987.

Thouglit Transference. Loiulon l!Mt>.
Water Diivimag and Radioactivity.
Sonic Experiments zeith Reputed liV//cr
Diviners'". J. Northants Nat. Hist.
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ll(‘<‘ollections and Kcfl(‘(dions. Lon¬
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An introduction to the Psychology
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Psychical Research - the Next Step, The
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The Fundamentals of Human Moti¬
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538

Thi: Psychology of thk Occult

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Hibi.tography

589

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IN DEX

Akiiamik : :M»4-5
Abramowski : :m), :SK1,

392, 401-2
Abrosia : 57
Acathisia : 57
AcciiestheKia : 121, 123, 23(»
AciOiimeter : 420-1
Acrokinc^is : 50
Acropha^ia : 5<i
Adventure, An : 372
Aesthesiogenie agents : 357
Aftftr-ima«?t*s : 107
Agitophasia: 50
Alcohol: 127,293
Alexander: 488, 489
Alternating Personality ; 40,

150-7, 175

See also Miii/riPi.r. Pkrs<in-

AIJTY

Aiuadlilozi: ;103
Anianita iiuisearia, 100
Aiiiiu^sia: 40, 47, 00, 73, 70, 79,
88, 148, 1,50, 150, 157, 100,
101, 100, 175, 180 et seq;
180, 187, 242, 247
AniKler: 410
Amulets : 303
Aphasia: 201
Aphonia : 59, 201, 212
Arab pilgrints : and ecstasy, 227
Articulation, involuntary : *104

et seq., 473 et seq.
Ascetics: 1(H, 105, 273, 288
Astasiabasia: 57
Asthma: 201,215
Astrsil bfxly : 122, 123
Atman: 278
Atrophy: 201,204,227
Auditory cu s; 379 et seq.,

410 et sejq., 4';3 el seq.

Anrsis : 107-108, 300

Australian Aborigines : 271,304,
342, 383

Autislie-lhinking ; i<i7, 109, 172
Aiitobypnosis : 105, 172, 175,

180, 208, 293; See also
Hypnosis

Aiitornatit* writing : 134 et seq. ;
and aiitomatisni, 18, 30,

39, 40, 5 ), 55, 00, 131, 100,
175-0, 180-2, 342
Auloniatisiu : and amnesia, 150,
158, 187, and automatic*

speaking, 175, 187; and
writing, 134 ; and dancing,
153; and dowsing, 348,
354, 355-301 ; and mcditiins,
172, 311 ; and tranee, 105,
100

Autornatograpb : 394, 395
AIItonography : See Automatic
W iU'iiNc;

AutoKe(>])ie lialliiciiiations : 115

ef Hcq

Aiitosngg<*stioii : 47, 105, 202,

200, 232, 252, 271, 280,
289, 354, 357, 305, 424;
Sec SUGGKSTION

Anaesthesia : 58, 92, 201, 270
Anacvstheties : 227, 270
Analgesia : 58, 74, 80-7, 2(Mi,
227, 258, 273, 270, 293, 304
Aiiaiiastasia : 57
.Angakok : 302, 303
Angels : 97, 135, 177
Animal inagiKdism : 07, 357
Animation, suspended : 284. See
also Hukiko at.tvk
Aiiiiiiisiu : 24
Anopsia : 59, 01
Anorexia : 57
Anthropocentrism : 483

541

Baiskwai«d ; 381,4G<>

Baggally : 326 et seq
Barrett, Sir W. : 336, 347
Basophobia : 57
Bass, M. J. 70
BaAink: 309

Beauchamp, Miss, case uf : 158
el seq, 160, 175-176, 191
Behanan, K. T. : 278-80, 282
Behaviourists : 406-7
Belladonna : 234, 266
Bender : 382, 438, 455
Bernlieim : 67, 198
Besterman, T : 306, 314, 336,
337, 374, 356

Bhang : 235 See also Hashish
Bio-chemistr>’: 41
Biometer: 360
Blavatsky : 16

Bleeding : and stigmata, 244-6,
248, 254, 255; and sug¬
gestion 226, 257
Blind: 422 et seq: 198, 199,
202, 206, 212

Blisters: and hypnotic sug¬
gestion, 256
“ Bloody Mary : 204
Bo ” : case of, 416
Boas: 363
Boils : 213, 221

Bombay, Government of: and
dowsing, 338

Bones ; broken, and suggestion,
226

Bonn, University of: 10
Borneo : 303
Bostroem, A : 71
Botirru : 225
Bovis : 360
Boyla : 303
Brahman : 278
Braid, James : 67, 108
Brain : 91 et seq ; 22, 27, 96, 99,
118

Brenman, M. : 90
British Association, The : 10
British Broadcasting CorjKira-
tion : 89

British Dental Association : 226
British Society of Dowsers,
Journal of: 360

Bronchitis ; 215
Brown, G. B. 295-6
Brown, Sir VV. : 63, 141, 206
164, 281

Buddhism : 185, 287 et seq
Buenos Aires, University of : 10
Buguet: 306
Bulgaria : 292

Burial alive : 272, 283 el seq ;
286

Burma : 260*7, :J03
Burns : and hypnotism, 259 ;
immunity from, 291 el seq.

Cacosmia : 97

('ambridge University : 10, 324,
327, 491

Carnpocaval lo : 114
Cancer: 200, 366
C^nibalism : 263-4
Card-guessing : 399 et seq ; 427
ei seq ; 456 et seq ; 491

Ciirington, Whately : 459
Carpenter, R. : 393, 449
Carrington ; 326, 330-2
Casson : 88-9
Oastiglioni, A. : 208-209
CaiAlepsy « 57, 58, 165-166, 283,
284, 287

Catatonic schizophrenia: 239

Cattell, MeKcen : 430
Charcot: 67-8, 198, 2-9, 357
Chasmus hystericus : 56
Cheiropompholyx: 249, 253

Chorea: 57,201

Chowrin; 380, 387, 391, 392,
466

Christian Sciencfc : 199, 205,211,
214, 233

Chromidrosis : 254
Chairvoyance: 9, 11, 18, 107,
129. 136, 149, 192, 34CS, 360,
:I67 et seq ; 379 et seq ;

409, 415, 419, 426, 427, 480
el seq; 452, 458, 468, 467,
472, 474, 484
“ Clever Hans ” : 431
Coenaesthesia : 118, 119, 122
Colorado University: 449
Colour therapy: 865
Columbia University: 449

543

Complexes : 54, 55
Conjuring: 102, 103, 277, 207,
300, 305, 311,315, 321, 320,
327^ 329, 330, 332
Conseioiisness : 22-23, 123, 145,
374; dual, 47
Constipation : 200-201, 202
Contemplation : 1(>5, 279, 288
Controls : 173 H seq ; 180, 190
Continenee, sexual: 105
Conversion syndromes : 200-7
Convulsions : 201
Copiopia : 5!»

(^.ouc: 220
Crocodile Men : 203
Crookes: 309
Crueilixion : 243 et seq.
Crystal-gazing : 8, 70, 94, 104,
125, 128 cf seq ; 150 H

seq : 370

Crypt<‘slliesia : 347

Cryptomnesia: 149, 1

50,

179,

182,

184, :1G8

Cues, auditory : 380. 408,

412,

414,

401, 4(>3

Cues, involuntary

: 119,

368,

381

Cues, sensory :

192,

et

seq ;

341

et seq ;

348

et

seq ;

385

et seq ;

417

et

seq ;

448

et seq ;

463

et

seq ;

473

et sejj

Culpin : 305, 348

Cures : by suggestion, 197 et seq

D/USMons: 110,274
Dalai Lama : 287
Dementia praceox : 158
Dancing : and ecstasy, 283,27r»;

Flpidemics of, 45, 50
Davis, Gordon : 474
Day-dreams ; 101, 107-170
Deadly Nightshaile : 234
Deaf-blind : 344, 423-4
Deafness : and liysteria, 198.
202

Dee, Dr. 128
Delboeuf: 250, 258
Delirium : 41, 90, 99-100, 104,
122

Delusions: 108, 123, 171, 174,
192, 232, 230, 240, 242, 252,
254, 272, 280, 297-8, 299,
:J08, 309, 3(>1 ; and liulhi-
eiiialion. 95, 98, 117, 122,
123, 107, 290, 374; and
livpnosis, 37, 299: mass,

15. 300

Demons : (i4, 155, 177, 302
Deorma : 17H et seq
Depersonalisation : 121, 240
Dermatitis artefaeta : 250, 253
Dervishes : 9, 104, 105, 235. 247,
258, 270, 272, 270, 292
Dessoir : 332

Devil the : 88, 97, 103, 120. 177,
238

Diapededesis : 253-4
Displacement ” : 459. 403,

464, 471

Dissociation: 32 et seq ; 20,

104, 155, 105, 175, 180,

180-7, 189-90, 208. 273;
and automatic writing, 135,
148, 149; and dowsing,
345, 348 ; and hypnotism,
71, 342; and mediums,

103-6, 171-2, 187, 190, 194;
and scrying, 132.

Divining Rod, The : 337 et seq
Doppelgangers : 115 r/ seq
Doseh : 275
Dowsing : 337 et seq
Drake, R. ; 41(i, 417
Dream-daneers : 153
Dreams: 34, 41, 54. 98, 109,
no, 118, 120-125, 151, 181,
235, 3(;8 et seq ; 375
Drugs: 43, 73, 107, 165, 211,
214, 234, 235, 276, 283,
28(>; and halIiieinations,
41, 100, 105, 106, 117, 123
Duke llniversitv : 10. IT, 387,
429, 440, *147, 448, 449,
452, 453

Dunne, J. IV. : 309

Ecchymosis : 253
Ecstasy: 234 et seq; 45, 104,
150, 248, 274

r>u

K(Un)lasin: ail, ari, aao

Ki-zt'ina: 201,215
Kflciiii^rton : 4S7, 48S, 480

EjvypI : 78, 120, 109

iinjiLr<*rv : 11 a, 114, 127,

128, lai, ia2

Kinstcin : 485, 489, 487
Ekslasis : 117
Kle(*tr(»-l)i(»U»iiy : 857
Elect ro-(*iic<*|>haIo»rraphy : 41
Elect n)-Tnat»netism : 848, 851,

857, 410

l^xcorialioii : iiciirotic. 250
Extra-sciisory Perce^ptioii ; S(r
ESP ExiM;KiMi:NTS ; Tkm:-

PATIIV ; (’L.MItVOVANC'i:.
Elves ; 10,8

Krnaii<»nietci* : n()y<rs, ao,*!
Efidojiliasia : ,888, 401, 407
KniUMirdsis : .880, 400, 405
Enuresis : 201
Epilepsy : 57, 104, 247
Ksdaile, 218, 221. 224, 225, 227,
258

Kskiuiu : 802, 8(i8

Esfpiirul, .lean : 90

ESI* e\p«‘i iineiits ; ,879 rt se(f :

404 ct seq ; 120 ft seq :

405 H svq

Kuplioria : 104, 105, KMi. 287.

240, 241, 274

F\ihii:s: 10.8

Faifli ilcaliiiij ; 9, 18, 59, 197,
207, 219, 220. See nfsn

Mkntai. llKAraxa;

J’akirs : 9. 205, 220, 272, ef seq :

279. 281, 284, 297-9
l^'asl ino : 104, 288, 270
Fedji ” : 170
Fere : 444

Feildirifr, Report : 820 et seq
Fire-walking ; 291 et seq ; 2<i7
Fiselier : 287

Flournoy : 120, 147, 104, 178 et
fi€q : 2t>9

Fodor, N. : 7, 20,8, 204
Forel: 250
Foneaclion : 2.70

Fraud : 1.58, 108, 104, 172, 174,
170, 188-190, 199, 248, 240.
247, 2.54, 272, 284, 287,
.808, 895, .809 et seq; 848,
8ti4, 800, 4.82, 480. 450,
457 , 402

Freeman, F .\\. : 229
Frenzy : (»0, 248
Freud : 51, .52, .805, 480
Fiupies : .80, 89, 40, 41, 55, 59,
140, 1.52 et seq; 158, RK),
185

FutH lional DisordtTS : 198, 201,
208, 205 et seq ; 288
Fiinr^^eld : 172-178, 188, 192

(iAiA'ANr, (iKMMA : 244. 245,

247

(iarretl, Eileen : 44(i, 447
(;atty: 814
(■eJasmus : .5(>

(ieley : 811

(feneva, I 'niv(Tsity of ; 104
(ieolop:y : and dowsini>, .‘187 cf
seq

(iermanv : 11, 12, 205. 880,

881* .882

(Ghosts: 94. 97, 102. 115, .872
et seq ; see also HAi.LrciNA-

TU >N

(ilohus liysteries : ,5(i
(ilossolalia : 182,185
(iloye aruu^sthesia : 5S
(ilynn, T. H : 208
Eoblins : 108

(iod : 50, 97. 104, 120, 177, 284,
2;{7 et seq : 274, .*102. 808
(ioldney : 450
(^)rnerah : 808
Goodrieh-Freer : 182
(iorer, : 288
(ion r bey re : 244
(iranienia : .'100
f;riiss(‘t : 82i
Gree<*e : 129, .805
Grimes : 857
(ironinffen l.'niv(jrsit.y : 10
(vuardian-an^cl : 115
“ Gni<les ” : 178 <7 : 180

(inrney : 878-0

545

JL\bhomania ; 2;S5
limlfu Ut : 25(1-7, 2St»

Hannoph liu : 2‘Wi
Ifalak: :S()2
Haklune : 284, 285
IfalliifMiiatioiis : 8. 18,

41, 8;t, 84, 87, 1>4 vt seq :
130, 131, 142, 147, 180,

179, 229, 232, 240, 241, 244,
271, 272, 298, 301, 378, 424 ;
autascopic, 115 et seq ; and
< (!stasy, 235, 230, 238, 274 :
hypiiaiTD^iic, 124 el seq;
and hypnotism, 7(i, 78 et
seq ; 299 ; and Ivcanttiropy,
2(»3-2(i9, 271 ; mass, 45,
111 et seq: 312: ps<‘udo,
100-2

liarniltop : 298

ifaiisrn : 399, 404-8, 413, 415,
404

Haphal^osia : ."lO
ilarirm : 312
Hariis]>i(nitioii : 120
Harvard Hnivrrsity : 10
Harvey, William : 24
Hashish: 100. 235, 27(», 293
ilaiiritiriu : 372 et seq.

Healiiijr; 197 et seq; 302, 302
et seq

Hehrphrenia : 239
Helmont, van : 07
Hemianopsia : 59
Heili^: 8(i
Horniple<;iu : 58
Ih’mothmyia : 204
H<'Tiip : 234,235
Hru/.e, raid : 27(i, 277, 283
Heycr, d. : 199, 210
Hihernation : 280
Hodgson. 324, 332
HolT: 80

Holy Wells: 201,207
Horih‘opalhy : 197
Hopp, M : 381
Hornby, Sir 10. : 375-(i
Horses : 431
Houdini : 317-S
Hondin ; 281
Hunt: 27(i

Hussain, Ahiried : 295
Hutton : 208, 270
Huxley : 15, 315
Hyena-iri<‘ri : 203
Hyperprosexia : 342-343
Hv^ieraeiiity : 379 et seq.
IlypiTiioea : 105
Hypnosis : 33, 30, 41, 43, (>0 et
seq; 98-100, 102, 130, 141,
147, 159, 105, 171, 177-189,
190, 202, 20(i, 211, 225, 220,
228, 2()4, 278-9, 289, 299,
342, 355, 383-4 : and aiito-
Hr>etseq; 100
Hypnothera])v : (»8, 220
Hypnotism : see Hvvvosrs
Hysteria : 49 et seq : 2. 9, 373 ;
and aiitf»mat.ism, 142, 153,
187, 342 ; and disease 203-
2(J0 ; and ecstasy, 235, 274;
and hypnosis, 37, 77, 79 ;
and lyeanthropy, 205-8, 271,
mass, .50; and mediums,
171. 170, 190, 191, 194;
and stiirmata, 245

Indians : Ami.ru an, 270
Inhibitions : and KSI*, 429,
452 : and h\ pnosis, 384
Innervations : 3(i8, 107, 408, 467
Insanitv : 41, 51, 74, *45-7, 103,
1.58, 172, 200, 23(i, 237, 239,
274, 30S, 417
Insomnia: 200-1, 214, 220
Inspiration : 00, 280

J\(:Ns(’ir, K. H. 113, 114, 131,
132, 417

James, William : 332, 384
Janet : 34, 43, 51. 52, 59, 153,
15(i, 202,204.209,257
Japan : 292

Jastrow, J ; 9. 15, 18, 329, 331,
348, 394, 395, 399, 404, 418
Jeans, Sir James : 24, 490
Jephson, Ina : 393
Jt»sus : 9(i, 242
Jews : 212

Joan of Are: 37, 94. 110, 179,
181, 240-1

546

Jolowicz, E : 199, 229
Jones, E. H. ; J105
Journal of Parapsifchology : 416,
427, 460, 462^ 465, 467, 468,
469, 440, 4^1.1, 454, 476
Jiiiupiii^ Disease : 265
Ju-Ju : 2(i6, 606

Jurifir: 117, 168, 141, 145, l<i4,
698

‘Mulia'’: 142

Kaivai.ya : 279
Kellar : 629

Kennedy : 448, 449, 450
Kilner s(;reen : 108
Kinaeslhesia : 122
Kind’s Evil : 208
Kirkland : 266-4
Kolik, Xaiim : 680
Knift-Kbbin^ ; 250
Kuda Kiix : 294 et sap
K 11 rumba : 606

Labioguaph : 40<i
Larnas : 287 et seq.

LainiK'rton, W. A : 61
Lapland : 22(>

Laryn^o;rra[i!i : 40(i
Lateaii, Louise : 244-0, 248, 255
“ Layiii«i on of flands 208
Lelunann, A. : 699, 404, KlfJ,

408, 416 , 415, 40 4, 476
lii'Oiiard, (iladys : 17(>

Leopard men : 206, 2(i7
Lepreehauns : 106
Levine, M. : 87, 278. 281, 600
Leyden University : 10
Lliasa : 287
Liebault: 102-6, 198
liie^eois : 198
TAfiht : 47 4-5
Limpias : 116
Lin^ l^au Lauro : 281
Linzmayer : 461
Lloyd-Tuekett : 9
Lod^e : 626- 4
Lcunbroso : 621-6
London Universitv : 10, 289,

450, 458

Loss of Memory : see Amnksta

Lourdes; 209, 219, 228, 266
Lukardis of Aberweiiiiar: 246

Mamv : 655

MacDouivall: 06, 141.212

Maeey ; 290

Ma(‘farland ; 449

Madajjfasear : 40

Maddox : 105

Magic: 11,215,606,624

Magnetism : 44, 675, 418

Malaya : 292, 602

Maoris : 271

Map Dowsing : 601

Marijuana : 265

xMarion ; 692, 698, 470

Martin : 449

Masochism : 248

Materialisation : 600. 611, it seq

Mawlawi> : 276

Medicine-inaii : 104, 197 et seq ;

210, 276, 606, 604, 675
Mediums : 16*4, 106 et seq ; 602,
606, 609 et seq : 620 et seq ;
679

Melbourne l;niversity ; 11
Menorrhagia : 202, 212, 258
Mental Healing ; 197 et seq.
.Mescaline; 107,127
5Iesmer: 07, 86, 84, 221, 657,
6()2, 604

Mesmerism : 86, 84, 221, 604
Mexico: 105,26^4,680
Middle Ages: 68, 50, 57, 58,

00, 04, 1(K{, 104, 129, 212,
220, 264, 268, 2 48-9. 272,
275,664
Mills : 7, 270

Mind : 21, 22, 29. 62 et seq ;

480

Minkowski : 489
xMiracles: 19, 48, 57, 08, 112,
113, 114, 197 et seq; 208,
209, 215, 219, 228, 24JV250,
600

Mitehel: 166,190-1
Moberley : 672

Moll; 202, 228-229, 258, 611,
662, 681

Monoplegia : 58

54

M(MKiy ; 25IJ-255
Motivalionul-scorinjjj: US, 450
Motor uiitonuit isiTi : 172, .*100,

047, 054

Muhl, Anila : 140, 141
Miilholland : 000
Mill lor, Klis<-; 104
Mullor, Mina ; 172-170, IHS, 102
Multiple IVisonulitv : Ori. 09,
00, 1.^2 ft stq: 175-7, 191
see also Ai/ri.HNATiNo 1*kr-

SONALITY
Mu lister! )(;ri: ; 001

Murchison

: 018

Mtisclc-rc;

idinu : 106-8,006.

047,

050,

082^ 094-9, 404,

t4t.

H5

Mutism :

198. 202

Myalisni :

000

Mvers : ;

122-L 070, 075,

076.

ws

Myihtoi :

000

Mysticism

: 9, 104, 119.

121.

165,

172, 204 et seq ;

240,

248, 274, 020
Mythomania : 194

Nan(’V : 42, 40, (i7. 198
Nariiolepsy : 57
Narcoties: 90. Sec also
Nature : 295, 048, 055, 050
Xi‘crophila : 204
Neumann, Theresa : 24t-5
NcMiral^ia: 221
Neurasthenia : 198, 2 )0-2OI,

219

Neuro-de inatilis : 251
Neureiter : 410, 411, 412. tl t
Nixv Testament: 96, 207, 242-0
Nexcton : 485

New York : Palladin(», 002;
College, 10

Northbrooke, Lord ; 299
Northeotl, .loseph, of’ Prlviit :
249

N Rays : 057
NyinphoJepsy : 108
Nymphomania : 105
Nut tall: 418

OiiKAii : 000

rieeult: 21, 24, 07, 107, 121.
128. 100, 144, 199, 218, 219,
272, 277, 278, 279, 287,
291, 294, 055, 081, 094,
401, 407, 409, 458, 459, 482,
t80; dowsinji, 000, 051
Oehorowiez; 022
Oesterreieli : 11, 185

Okkulte Welt^ Die. : 11
Ololuiqu) : 105, 204
Omniseienee : 209, 240
Oniornania : 57

Operations, siii'^ieiil : 96, 100,

121, 122. 224-7
Opium : 01, 90. 276
Orgasm : 022
Oseilloelast : 0(;5
Osteo()aihv: 211
Osty: 010-5

Ouiju-hoard : 104 el scq ; 098
“ Out-of-the-body’’ hallueiiia-
tions: 12i. See Aifro-

seorir IlAM.rujiN ations

PAGKNSTMeilKU : 080
Pain: 08, 109, 198, 200-201,
206, 207, 210, 220, 221 et seq :
227

Paintings: 112-0, 127, 000
Palladino : 010, 020 et seq
Palsy : 57
P.an-Si! : 000

Paralysis: 58, 198, 201, 202,
204, 212, 227. 257
!*aram)ia : 120. 121. 120. 172,

2<;4-(i

Paraplegia : 58, 200
Parapsveliolojry : 17. 19, 24-5,

067, 412, 426, 406, 407, 447,
475, 480-1,487, 489, 491. see
also PSVC’IIICAT. Jti:SF.ARCH
Parish, K. : 100, 074
Palhoehist : 065, 066
Piiihomiinesis ; 60
Paul, Saint: 07, 242
Pavlov : S2, 92
Pectoris, anjijiua : 215
Pcmiiilum: 105, 106, 006, 050.
061 et seq : see also Dow.sing

54S

Peripheral vision ; HO
Perrot Studentship : 10
Persia : (i(i, 272
Pcyotl: 105, 107
Phalen, H. H. : 440
Phonometer: 420-21
Photographs : 272, 20S, :i00-7,

:ni, ;n4

Physics of the Divining Hint : :i5r>
Pied Piper : 40
Pieterrnaritzhurj* : 2!>2
Pio, Padre : 245-24(»

PK Experiments : 448 et siy
IManchette : 41, 1 *‘14 ef seq
Plan(*k : :itiO

Podmore ; 0, i:i, .‘120, :i‘i5, ;};10-1
Poe: 158

I*oj^son, Major ('. A. : ;i.‘18 et

seq : 35(»

P<»lish Psychological lii'^titnlc :
:i80

Polter^jeists : 18, :i77-8
Polypnea : 50

Possession " : .‘15, 50, 147, 1.50,
177, 242, 275

lh>st-liypnotic Siijr^eslioii : 70

ft seq : 177

Pnitt-WoodnifT FA’perinicnts :
:i87-f»

Pratyaliara : 270

l*rayers: 207, 214, 215, 210, ‘20.*1

Preer»]^ition : 307 et seq ; 1-02 ;

Soal, 450 et seq
Pregnancy : 202, 204
Price, Harry : 294, 205, 315
l^rirnitive man : 42, 44, 58, 78,
70, 80, 88, 90, 05, 103, 111,
112, 120, 107, 108. 200, 220,
228, 234, 238, 2.50. 201,302,
304, 305, ,‘171

Prince, Morton : 130, 133, 1 10-1,
143, 158 et seq ; 175-(i
Prophecy ; 130, 4,50-7
Prziham : 313
Pseudesthesia : 221
Psoriasis: 215

Psi-phenomena : 10, 21 see also
I'klkpatii Ci.airvoyanck,
J'RECOONrnoN and PsYCifo-
KINESIS

Psyehasthena : 120, 121, P23,

100, 235. 230-40

Psychiatry : 28, 100, 150, 107
et .seq ; 200. 217, 218, 228,
233, 2 . 10 , 242, 250, 252
Psychic healing : 107 , 200 et seq;
215, 227-‘io

Psychic plienomcna : 307 et seq.
Psychical Research : 10, 13 et

seq; 18, 24, 110, 128, 307,
311, 315, 323, 307, 371,
370-81, 380. 380, 404, 412,
417, 4.>(i, 458, 471, 400;
Fellowships in. 10 : Society
for, 1 U, 3(i0

Psychoanalysis: 21(», 218 see
also Fheiuj

Psv< hokincsis : 0 , 11, 14, 307,
428, 430, 440, 448 et seq. .see
also PK lixiMiioMKN'rs
Psychoncurosis : 108, 210
l*sychopatli(>k)gv : 32, 37, 71, 00
Psv(‘hosis: 00 ‘ 00 , 100 , 108,
130, 100, 172, 2(M), 235. 240,
200, 273. 378. see alstt

Insanuty

l^.svchosonudic* : 200, 210, 24(i,
253 el seq : 271,270, 28 )
Psychotlu'rapv ; 08, 154, 1J17.

108, 100, 200, 202, 215-7.
210, 221, 257
Pnrilicalion : 104, 203
I’uyscgiir : 2.55

Quackkvhos, J. 1). : 308
Quacks : 210, 210

K vniATioNH : 130, 310, 348, 355
et seq ; 3(i4-5

Uadicsthesia: 130, 107, 100,

200, 355 et seq ; .‘102 ef. se.q ;

30;i, ;Mi4

Rain-nmking : 304
Rajah Ynga : 270
Rainadicr : 255
“ Rap[)ort ” : 83, 84
Reality : 2.‘14, 270
Ref]exo[>hone : .‘105
Rele, V. : 275, 282

Hrli^on : 45, 5<>, 00, 108, 112,
128. 210, 282, 284, 287, 288,
240, 800, 812

Hcpressioii : 80, 52 el ,s 7 Y/; 01 ,
140, 155, 157, 150. 101, 100,
184, 208, 845
Ueverir : 105, 107
Reynolds, Mary : 158
Rhine, J. R. : 14, 887, 800, 808.
401, 420 el seq ; 400-7, 478,
474, 47 S, 488, 485, 488, 18J»
Ridiel : 188, 811, 847, 880:

and P.'diadino case, 822, 828,
824

Ri(*cl»cnl)ach : 857
Kiess, Professor M. : 482 et seq
Rifa’is : 278. 270 : and eesiaev,
288

Ri^a IJniversitv : 411

Ri*rall, R. M. 100-101

Rimini: 114

Road to Endor : 805

Robiiiet : 85

Roddnt/, X. A. : 888-4

Romains : 801,802

Rorschach 'rest : 4-12

Rosctl : 7, 00 , 07, 108, 112 , 220

Rotfi, \V. E. : 270-271, ;K )8

Russia : 880

Sadhus: 284
Sadism : 288, 204, 200
Saints; 00, 118, 105, 170, 210,
288, 280, 241, 248-4
St. Fra ’.cis : 248-4, 240
St. Paul: 00, 241, 248
St. Tlieresa: 179
St. Vil ns’ Dance : 80, 57
Salienc’c : 450
“Sally”: 175-0
Salpctriere : 40, 209
Siimadhi: 270-80, 285
Samoyeds : 100
Sankh a-Yo«a ; 278, 488
Satyriasis : 105
Scatological: 212
Schi parelli: 822
Schiller; :.06

Schizophrenia: 59, 03, 70, 95,
98, 158, 107, 108, 239, 273

Sehmcidler : 442, 448
Schmoll: 880
Schneider : 318-5
Schrcnck-Xotzin^T: 811, 812,

820

Scrying ; 04, 128 rt seq.
Secondary Personality : 152 et

seq \ 170. See also Mul¬

ti pm: Pkrsonamty
S( If-Oagellation : 50, 248, 278

Self-mutilation : 278, 275, 270
Sclicman : 258, 27(i
Sells (>)rnmitlcc : 448, 450
Semen : 288
Seman^ : 802

Sen.snry cues : 870 et seq 404
et seq ; 42(i et seq ; 450 rt
seq.

Sex : 104, 288, 248, 274, 208,

8(48

Shaekleton : 400 et seq ; 41iiS el
seq.

Shamanism : 11 , 104, 105, 108,
104, 105, 178, 100 , 22(k 228,
802 et seq ; 808
Sharp-Plark : 440
Silx^ria : 100 , 272, 802
Siddlns : 270

Sidtrwiek : 404 et seq ; 408, 405,
478

Sleep: 81, 70 et seq; 01 , 220 ,
228

Sleep-talkinp : 153,171
Sleep-walking: 35, 153, 165.

See also Somnambulism
Smith, H Ic ne : 120 , 164; ca.se
of l7Het seq ; 102,308
Soal, Dr S. (i. ; 144. 148, 176,
38(i, 388, 392. 93. 398, 427,
44C), 447, 450 et seq ; 481,
482. 483, 485
Socrates : 00, 08, 181
ScMlium Amytal: 211
Somatopsychic ))aranoia : 230
Somnambulism : 35, 36, 60, 75
et seq ; 152 et seq : 171, 176
170, 180, 247
Somnil(K]uism : 60
Soothsayers: 102,100
Sophomaniu : 236

SoTwrv : 39
Soul :‘l22, 1(5(»

South America :

Spasmodyspnea: 50
Speaking with torijt^iies : 0(J, 172
Speech : backward, 140: in-
voluntary% 147

Spirits: 18, 97, 104, 135, 137,
140, 103, 173 €t seq; 177,
186, 195, 302, 312, 320
Spiritualism: 11, 50, 55, 102,
121, 122-3, 128. 136, 137,
14:1, 145, 147, 150, 159, 161,
103 et seq; 302 et seq;
.309, .330, 3.32, .367, 377,

474, 483
Split-mind : 58
“ Spontaneous phenomena :
367 et seq

Spring festivals : 291
Sprites : 103

Stewart, Mrs, G. : 471 et seq
Stigmata : 59, 243 et seq
Strangulation : 104
Stribic : 449

“ Stocking ” anaesthesia : 58

Strophosymbolia: 146
Stumpf; 431
Sturge-Whiting; 372
Subconscious : 26 et seq; 50,

54, 110, 146, 172, 203, 205,
207, 214, 218, 336, 342, 345,
:i46, 348, 356, 394, 448, 450,
4i>0

Sublimation : 52, 177
Suggestion : 42 et seq.
Supernatural: 8, 117, 197, 217,
246, 303, 324, 326, 327, .370,
371, 437

Superstition : 11, 102, 481
Suspended animation: 285
Syphilis : 230

Table-Tapping : 184
Tahra Bey : 277. 288, 280
Talismans : 207
Tarclianow: 393-7, 404, 444,

445

Telekinetic: 11, 325, 381

Telepathy: 9, 11, 18, 180-8»
192, 219, 278, :i07-8, 370-1,
.379, 380-90, 392-3, 395,

404-5, 408-9 410 et seq;

427, 430-2 et seq; 440-7,
152, 450, et seq ; 404, 407,
471 et seq : 481, et seq
Thanatomania: 75, 112, 271,

304

Theosophy : 10,122,240
Thomas, .1. F. : 11
Thompson, J. J. : .3:18
Tichy: 200-208
Tiger-men : 200-8
Tinnitis : 378
Tisehncr: 380

Topoalgia : 59, 2:i3, 251, 252,
271

Trance : 3(», .39, 41, 50, 55, 60,
71, 77, 107, 127, 154, 101,
103 et seq ; 180 et seq ; 195,
245-(i, 251, 208-9, 279-80,
283, 280, 289, 290, 293 and
fraud, 303, .304, and yoga,
:145, 445

Tremograph : 3!>4
Tricliotillomania : 57
Troland : 452
Tsas: 288

Tuberculosis : 210, 226, 362, 260
Tiickett, Lloyd : 418-9
Turno: 225,226
Turkey : 272

Tyrell, G. N. M. : 483, 488

Ulckks : 119,201
University of London : 296
Unconscious whispering: 379

et seq ; 456 et seq ; 473 et

seq

Upanishad : 278
Uphoff : 448
Urine: 212-3
Urticaria: 253
Utrecht University : 10

Vaginismus : 57
Vakil. R.J. ; 284-6
Vampires : 265
Vaudeville : 88, 299, 382, 470

551

Veley, Marp;aret : I MI
Vienna, University : lU.'i
Vigils : 1()4

Villey : :}91, 42a, 424, 444
Violet, M.: las, 192, a08
Visions : 37, 94 et seq and crystal
^azin^, 104, 129-30, 105,
2(H)-1, 235
Voison : 255
VoodcK>: 303

Warnings: 108 el seq; 199
Wait: and eharminj;, 201, sti^j-
maf a, 253
Wassiliewski : 380
Water-divining: 41, 130, 333
el seq ; see also Dowsing
Water-smelling :

Watters: 307

W'erowolvcs : 205, 2(»(i, 2r>9,

271

Wertheimer : 350
West, D. J. 7, • 367
WTiirling dervishes : 273
Will: 59, 72, 120, 278, 451
Willet, Mrs. : 170
Witchcraft: 14, 45, 47, 234,
303; and analgesia, 38;
and automatic vvTiling, 135 ;
and diss(K;iation, 40 ; and
hallucination, 238; and
lyeanthropy, 265; and
mediumship, 303; and phe¬
nomena, 147; and spiritual¬
ism, 30*3; and zoanthropy,
200

Witch doctor : 271, 303, :104 ;
and cure of fiinct onal dis¬
orders, 199; and hypno¬
tism, 75 220 ; and lycan-
thropy, 263; and rain-
making, 304: and sug¬
gestion, 227
Woodruff: 387
World-Soul : 279
Wounds : self intiiited, 24(i
Writer’s (Tamp : 58

Xcnoglossia : 00, 172

Yoga : 275, 277 et seq : 280 ;
and (‘atalej)sy, 283; and
dowsing, 360 ; and ecstasy,
237, 274; Hatha, 278 ;

and oe(‘ult, 9; and radi-
esthesia, 355 ; Rajah, 284.

Yogie sleep *’: 280

Zeilkis : 207, 208
Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Neuw-
logie und Psychiatric : 172
Zeitschrift fur Psychologic : 417
Zener-cards : 380,‘ 389, 446, 447
Zoanthropy : 204, 205, 20(i
Zocrasty : 204

Zombies : 303

HOAXES

by Curtis D. MacDougall

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THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY
by William James

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HOUDINI ON MAGIC

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*Answer:

'jajLjSDD ai|4

puD 'jdbouDUj aqi aq jsnoi uMOjg ’sauof si Jd||a| di|4 'ajo^ajaqj^ 'Xauouj
jsoiu dL {4 sujoa Ht|UJ9 aDUjS aq louuo? aq puy ‘p|!q3 A|UO uo Sj

ja||a| aqi ajiqM 'jaisis o poq uMOjg aaujs 'uMOjg aq jouuoa ja||a 4 aqj^

PRIMITIVE MAN AS PHILOSOPHER
by Paul Radin

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original primitive documents extensively. It does not tear ideas from
their matrix, nor does it seek far-fetched interpretations in terms of
preconceived psychological theories.

Throughout most of this Interesting book, primitive men are allowed to
speak for themselves. Most of the supporting data were obtained at
first hand, much of it by the author himself in his contacts with primitive
peoples.

Bibliography. Index, xviii -f 402pp. 5% x 8.

T392 Paperbound $1.95

PRIMITIVE RELIGION
by Paul Radin

This is a thorough treatment by a noted anthropologist of the nature
and origin of primitive religion, and of the influences that have shaped
its expression. It takes into occount comparative religions and modern
psychology, and discusses in detail the role of economic factors, social
factors, and religious personalities in primitive religion.

Ranging from Africa, Australia, Oceania, Asia, to the Americas, it covers
religious ideology, cult, and social development among such peoples
as the Arunta, Aztec, Bushmen, Crow, Dakota, and dozens of others.
Of special interest is material about Winnebago religion gathered by
the author himself. Throughout the book scores of primitive texts are
quoted and analyzed, and such topics as shamanism, stages of reli¬
gious evolution, culture levels, theories of religious experience, initia¬
tion, acculturation, diffusion vs. psychogenesis are continually subjected
to penetrating criticism.

A first-rate introduction and survey volume for the anthropologist,
sociologist, psychologist, historian of religion, and general reader, this
book is unique in its combination of impeccable scholarship with an
easily followed lively presentation.

“Excellent,” NATURE (London). “A significant addition to the body of
work that deals with the nature of religion,” NEW REPUBLIC.

New preface by the author. Bibliographic notes. Index, x f 322pp.
Sya X 8.

T393 Paperbound $1.95

THE MYSTERIES OF MITHRA
by Franz Cumont

This is the definitive coverage of a great ideological struggle betv^een
the west and the orient in the first centuries of the Christian era. At
this time, Mithraism, a mystery religion originating in Persia, spread
rapidly through the Roman Empire, and achieved such strength that
Europe almost became Mithraic. Dr. Cumont, the world's greatest
authority on aspects of classical religions, here discusses the origins
of this colorful oriental religion, and its association with the Roman
army. Then utilizing fragmentary monuments and texts, in one of the
greatest feats of scholarly detection, he reconstructs the mystery teach¬
ings and secret doctrines, the hidden organization and cult of Mithra.
Mithraic art is discussed, analyzed, and shown in 70 illustrations.
239pp. 5 Vs X 8.

Paperbound $1.50

MATHEMATICS, MAGIC AND MYSTERY
by Martin Gardner

Why do card tricks work? How can magicians do astonishing feats
of mathematics mentally? Why do stage “mind-reading" tricks work?
As a rule, we simply accept these tricks as “magic" — we seldom
recognize that they are really demonstrations of strict laws based
on probability, sets, theory of numbers, topology, and other branches
of mathematics.

MATHEMATICS, MAGIC AND MYSTERY is the first book-length study
of this fascinating branch of recreational mathematics. Written by
one of the foremost experts on mathematical magic, it summarizes
with considerable historical data and bibliography all previous work
in this field; it is also a creative examination of laws and their exempli¬
fication, with scores of new tricks, new insights, new demonstrations.
Here, for the first time, dozens of topological tricks are explained,
dozens of manipulation tricks are aligned with mathematical law.

Non-technical, detailed and clear, this volume contains 115 sections
discussing tricks with cards, dice, coins, etc.; topological tricks with
handkerchiefs, cards, etc.; geometrical vanishing effects, demonstra¬
tions with pure numbers, and dozens of others. You will learn how
Sam Loyd could make a Chinaman vanish from a printed card; how
a Moebius strip works; how a Curry square can “prove" that the
whole is not equal to the sum of its parts.

No skill at sleight of hand Is needed to perform the more than 500
tricks described — mathematics guarantees their success, and they
work for anyone. Detailed examination of laws and their application
permits you to create your own problems and effects.

Index of names. 135 illustrations, xii -f 174pp. 5% x 8.

T335 Paperbound $1.00

Catalog

of

DOVER BOOKS

BOOKS EXPLAINING SCIENCE

(Note: The books listed under this category are general introductions, surveys, reviews, and
non-technical expositions of science tor the inlerosted layman or scientist who wishes
to brush up. Dover also publishes the largest list of inexpensive reprints of books on inter¬
mediate and higher mathematics, mathematical physics, engineering, chemistry, astronomy,
etc., for the professional mathematician or scientist. For our complete Science Catalog,
write Dept, catrr., Dover Publications, Inc., 180 Varick Street, New York 14, N. Y.)

CONCERNING THE NATURE OF THINGS, Sir William- Bragg, Royal Institute Christmas Lectures
by Nobel Laureate. Excellent plain-language introduction to gases, molecules, crystal struc¬
ture, etc. explains “building blocks’’ of universe, basic properties of matter, with simplest,
clearest examples, demonstrations. 32pp. of photos; 57"-figures. 244pp. SVb x 8.

T31 Paperbound $1.35

MATTER AND LIGHT, THE NEW PHYSICS, Louis de Broglie. Non technical explanations by a
Nobel Laureate of electro-magnetic theory, relativity, wave mechanics, quantum physics,
philosophies of science, etc. Simple, yet accurate introduction to work of Planck, Bohr,
Einstein, other modern physicists. Only 2 of 12 chapters require mathematics. 300pp.
5% X 8. T35 Paperbound $1.60

THE COMMON SENSE OF THE EXACT SCIENCES. W. K. Clifford. For 70 years, Clifford’s work
has been acclaimed as one of the clearest, yet most precise introductions to mathematical
symbolism, measurement, surface boundaries, position, space, motion, mass and force, etc.
Prefaces by Bertrand Russell and Karl Pearson. Introduction by James Newman. 130 figures.
249pp. 5% X 8. T61 Paperbound $1.60

THE NATURE OF LIGHT AND COLOUR IN THE OPEN AIR, M. Minnaert. What causes mirages?
haloes? “multiple” suns and moons? Professor Minnaert explains these and hundreds of
other fascinating natural optical phenomena in simple terms, tells how to observe them,
suggests hundreds of experiments. 200 illus; 42 photos, xvi + 362pp.

T196 Paperbound $1;95

SPINNING TOPS AND GYROSCOPIC MOTION, John Perry. Classic elementary text on dynamics
of rotation treats gyroscopes, tops, how quasi-rigidity is induced in paper disks, smoke
rings, chains, etc, by rapid motion, precession, earth’s motion, etc. Contains many easy-to-
perform experiments. Appendix on practical uses of gyroscopes. 62 figures. 128pp.

T416 Paperbound $1.00

A CONCISE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, D. Struik. This lucid, easily followed history of
mathematics from the Ancient Near East to modern times requires no mathematical back¬
ground itself, yet introduces both mathematicians and laymen to basic concepts and
discoveries and the men who made them. Contains a collection of 31 portraits of eminent
mathematicians. Bibliography, xix -f 299pp. 5% x 8. T255 Paperbound $1.75

THE RESTLESS UNIVERSE, Max Born, A remarkably clear, thorough exposition of gases,
electrons, ions, waves and particles, electronic structure of the atom, nuclear physics,
written for the layman by a Nobel Laureate. “Much more thorough and deep than most
attempts . . . easy and delightful,” CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS. Includes 7 animated
sequences showing motion of molecules, alpha particles, etc. 11 full-page plates of photo¬
graphs. Total of nearly 600 illus. 315pp. 6V% x 9V4. T412 Paperbound $2.00

WHAT IS SCIENCE?, N. Campbell. The role of experiment, the function of mathematics, the
nature of scientific laws, the limitations of science, and many other provocative topics
are explored without technicalities by an eminent scientist. “Still an excellent introduction
to scientific philosophy," H. Margenau in PHYSICS TODAY. 192pp. 5% x 8.

S43 Paperbound $1.25

CATALOG OF

FADS AND FALLACIES IN THE NAME OF SCIENCE, Martin Gardner. The standard account of
the various cults, quack systems and delusions which have recently masqueraded as science:
hollow earth theory, Atlantis, dianetics, Reich’s orgone theory, flying saucers, Bridey Murphy,
psionics, irridiagnosis, many other fascinating fallacies that deluded tens of thousands.
“Should be read by everyone, scientist and non-scientist alike," R. T. Birge, Prof. Emeritus,
Univ. of California; Former President. American Physical Society. Formerly titled, “In the
Name of Science." Revised and enlarged edition, x + 365pp. 5% x 8.

T394 Paperbound $1.50

THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS. THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE,
G. Sarton. Two books bound as one. Both volumes are standard introductions to their fields
by an eminent science historian. They discuss problems of historical research, teaching,
pitfalls, other matters of interest to the historically oriented writer, teacher, or student.
Both have extensive bibliographies. 10 illustrations. 188pp. 5% x 8. T240 Paperbound $1.25

THE PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE, W. S. Jevons. Unabridged reprinting of a milestone in the
development of symbolic logic and other subiects concerning scientific methodology, proba¬
bility, inferential validity, etc. Also describes Jevons' “logic machine/’ an early precursor
of modern electronic calculators. Preface by E. Nagel. 839pp. 5% x 8. S446 Paperbound $2.98

SCIENCE THEORY AND MAN, Erwin Schroedinger. Complete, unabridged reprinting of “Science
and the Human Temperament" plus an additional essay “What is an Elementary Particle?"
Nobel Laureate Schroedinger discusses many aspects of modern physics from novel points
of view which provide unusual insights for both laymen and physicists. 192 pp. 5% x 8.

T428 Paperbound $1.35

BRIDGES AND THEIR BUILDERS, D. B. Steinman & S. R. Watson. Information about ancient,
medieval, modern bridges; how they were built; who built them; the structural principles
employed; the materials they are built of; etc. Written by one of the world's leading
authorities on bridge design and construction. New, revised, expanded edition. 23 photos;
26 line drawings, xvii + 401pp. 5^a x 8. T431 Paperbound $1.95

HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, 0. E. Smith. Most comprehensive non technical history of math
In English. In two volumes. Vol. I; A chronological examination of the growth of mathe¬
matics from primitive concepts up to 1900. Vol. il: The development of ideas in specific fields
and areas, up through elementary calculus. The lives and works of over a thousand mathema¬
ticians are covered; thousands of specific historical problems and their solutions are
clearly explained. Total of 510 illustrations, 1355pp. 5^ x 8. Set boxed in attractive con¬
tainer. T429, T430 Paperbound, the set $5.00

PHILOSOPHY AND THE PHYSICISTS, L. S. Stebbing. A philosopher examines the philosophical
implications of modern science by posing a lively critical attack on the popular science
expositions of Sir James Jeans and Arthur Eddington, xvi -1- 295pp. 5% x 8.

T480 Paperbound $1.65

ON MATHEMATICS AND MATHEMATICIANS, R. E. Moritz. The first coiiection of quotations by
and about mathematicians in English. 1140 anecdotes, aphorisms, definitions, speculations,
etc. give both mathematicians and layman stimulating new insights into what mathematics
is, and into the personalities of the great mathematicians from Archimedes to Euler, Gauss,
Klein, Weierstrass. Invaluable to teachers, writers. Extensive cross index. 410pp. 5% x 8.

T489 Paperbound $1.95

NATURAL SCIENCE, BIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, TRAVEL

A SHORT HISTORY OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY FROM THE GREEKS TO HARVEY, C. Sinter.

A great medical historian’s fascinating intermediate account of the slow advance of anatom¬
ical and physiological knowledge from pre-scientific times to Vesalius, Harvey. 139 unusu¬
ally interesting illustrations. 221pp. 5^ x 8. T389 Paperbound $1.75

THE BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL LIFE OF HONEYBEES, Ronald Ribbands. The most comprehensive,
lucid and authoritative book on bee habits, communication, duties, cell life, motivations,
etc. “A MUST for every scientist, experimenter, and educator, and a happy and valuable
selection for all interested in the honeybee,” AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. 690-item bibliography.
127 illus.; 11 photographic plates. 352pp. 5% x 8%. S410 Clothbound $4.50

TRAVELS OF WILLIAM BARTRAM, edited by Mark Van Ooren. One of the 18th century’s most
delightful books, and one of the few first-hand sources of information about American
geography, natural history, and anthropology of American Indian tribes of the time. “The
mind of a scientist with the soul of a poet," John Livingston Lowes. 13 original illustra¬
tions, maps. Introduction by Mark Van Doren. 448pp. 5% x 8. T326 Paperbound $2.00

STUDIES ON THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF VERTEBRATES, Edwin Goodrich. The

definitive study of the skeleton, fins and limbs, head region, divisions of the body cavity,
vascular, respiratory, excretory systems, etc., of vertebrates from fish to higher mammals, by
the greatest comparative anatomist of recent times. "The standard textbook," JOURNAL OF
ANATOMY. 754 illus. 69-page biographical study. 1186-jtem bibliography. 2 vols. Total of
906pp. 5^ X 8. Vol. 1: S449 Paperbound $2.50

Vol. II: S450 Paperbound $2.50

DOVER BOOKS

THE BIRTH AHD DEVELOPMEHT OF THE GEOLOGICAL SCIEHCES, F. D. Adams. The most com-
plete and thorough history of the earth sciences in print. Covers over 300 geological thinkers
and systems; treats fossils, theories of stone growth, paleontology, earthquakes, vulcanists
vs. neptunists, odd theories, etc. 91 illustrations, including medieval, Renaissance wood cuts,
etc. 632 footnotes and bibliographic notes. 511pp. 308pp. 5% x 8 . T5 Paperbound $2.00

FROM MAGIC TO SCIENCE, Charles Singer. A close study of aspects of medical science from
the Roman Empire through the Renaissance. The sections on early herbals, and "The Visions
of Hildegarde of Bingen," are probably the best studies of these subjects available. 158
unusual classic and medieval illustrations, xxvii + 365pp. 5 ^b x 8 . T390 Paperbound $2.00

SAILING ALONE AROUND THE WORLD, Captain Joshua Slocum. Captain Slocum’s personal
account of his single-handed voyage around the world in a 34*foot boat he rebuilt himself.
A classic of both seamanship and descriptive writing. "A nautical equivalent of Thoreau's
account," Van Wyck Brooks. 67 illus. 308pp. 5% x 8 . T326 Paperbound $1.00

TREES OF THE EASTERN AND CENTRAL UNITED STATES ANU CANADA, W. M. Harlow. Standard
middle-level guide designed to help you know the characteristics of Eastern trees and
identify them at sight by means of an 8 -page synoptic Key. More than 600 drawings and
photographs of twigs, leaves, fruit, other features, xiii + 288pp. AWb x 6 V 2 .

T395 Paperbound $1.35

FRUIT KEY AND TWIG KEY ("Fruit Key to Northeastern Trees," "Twig Key to Deciduous
Woody Plants of Eastern North America"), W. M. Harlow. Identify trees in fall, winter,
spring. Easy-to-use, synoptic keys, with photographs of every twig and fruit identified.
Covers 120 different fruits, 160 different twigs. Over 350 photos. Bibliographies. Glossaries.
Total of 143pp. SVa x BVa. T511 Paperbound $1.25

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE, Claude Bernard. This classic
records Bernard's far-reaching efforts to transform physiology into an exact science. It
covers problems of vivisection, the limits of physiological experiment, hypotheses In medical
experimentation, hundreds of others. Many of his own famous experiments on the liver, the
pancreas, etc., arc used as examples. Foreword by I. B. Cohen, xxv -H 266pp. 5^ x 8 .

T400 Paperbound $1.50

THE ORIGIN OF LIFE, A. I. Oparin. The first modern statement that life evolved from complex
nitro-carbon compounds, carefully presented according to modern biochemical knowledge of
primary colloids, organic molecules, etc. Begins with historical introduction to the problem
of the origin of life. Bibliography, xxv + 270pp. 5 ^b x 8 . S213 Paperbound $1.75

A HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY FROM THALES TO KEPLER. J. L. E. Dreyer. The only work in English
which provides a detailed picture of man's cosmological views from Egypt, Babylonia, Greece,
and Alexandria to Copernicus, Tycho Brahe and Kepler. "Standard reference on Greek
astronomy and the Copernican revolution," SKY AND TELESCOPE. Formerly called "A History of
Planetary Systems From Thales to Kepler." Bibliography. 21 diagrams, xvii + 430pp. 5^ x 8 .

S79 Paperbound $1.98

URANIUM PROSPECTING, H. L. Barnes. A professional geologist tells you what you need to
know. Hundreds of facts about minerals, tests, detectors, sampling, assays, claiming, develop¬
ing, government regulations, etc. Glossary of technical terms. Annotated bibliography.
X + 117pp. 5% x 8 . T309 Paperbound $1.00

DE RE METALLICA, Georgius Agricola. All 12 books of this 400 year old classic on metals
and metal production, fully annotated, and containing all 289 of the 16th century woodcuts
which made the original an artistic masterpiece. A superb gift for geologists, engineers,
libraries, artists, historians. Translated by Herbert Hoover & L. H. Hoover. Bibliography,
survey of ancient authors. 289 illustrations of the excavating, assaying, smelting, refining,
and countless other metal production operations described in the text. 672pp. 6 V 4 x 10 ^ 4 .
Deluxe library edition. S 6 Clothbound $10.00

DE MAGNETE, William Gilbert. A landmark of science by the man who first used the word
"electricity," distinguished between static electricity and magnetism, and founded a new
science. P. F. Motteiay translation. 90 figures, lix + 368pp. 5^ x 8 . S470 Paperbound $2.00

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF CHARLES OMVilU AND SELECTED LETTERS, Francis Darwin, ed.

Fascinating documents on Darwin's early life, the voyage of the "Beagle,” the discovery of
evolution, Darwin’s thought on mimicry, plant development, vivisection, evolution, many
other subjects Letters to Henslow, Lyeii, Hooker, Wallace, Kingsley, etc. Appendix. 365pp.
5% x 8 . T479 Paperbound $1.65

A WAY OF LIFE AND OTHER SELECTED WRITINGS OF SIR WILLIAM OSLER. 16 of the great
physician, teacher and humanist’s most inspiring writings on a practical philosophy of life,
science and the humanities, and the history of medicine. 5 photographs. Introduction by
G. L. Keynes, M.D., F.R.C.S. xx + 278pp. 54% x 8 . T488 Paperbound $1.50

CATALOG OF

LITERATURE

WORLD DRAMA. B. H. Clark. 46 plays from Ancient Greece, Rome, to India, China, Japan.
Plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Plautus. Marlowe, Jonson, Farquhar,
Goldsmith. Cervantes, Moliere, Dumas, Goethe. Schiller, Ibsen, many others. One of the
most comprehensive collections of important plays from all iitciature available in English.
Over 1^3 of this material is unavailable in any other current edition. Reading lists. 2 vol¬
umes. Total of 1364pp. 5-^8 X 8. Vol. I, T57 Paperbound $2.00

Vol. II, T59 Paperbound $2.00

MASTERS OF THE DRAMA, John Gassner. The most comprehensive history of the drama in
print. Covers more than 800 dramatists and over 2000 plays from the Greeks to modern
Western, Near Eastern, Oriental drama. Plot summaries, theatre history, etc. "Best of its
kind in English," NEW REPUBLIC. 35 pages of bibliography. 77 photos and drawings. Deluxe
edition, xxii -f 890pp. 5^8 x 8. TlOO Clothbound $5.95

THE DRAMA OF LUIGI PIRANDELLO, 0. Vittorini. All 38 of Pirandello's plays (to 1935) sum¬
marized and analyzed in terms of symbolic techniques, plot structure, etc. The only authorized
work. Foreword by Pirandello. Biography. Bibliography, xiii -f 350pp. 5% x 8.

T435 Paperbound $1.98

ARISTOTLE'S THEORY OF POETRY AND THE FINE ARTS. S. H. Butcher, ed. The celebrated
"Butcher translation" faced page by page with the Greek text; Butcher's 300-page introduc¬
tion to Greek poetic, dramatic thought. Modern Aristotelian criticism discussed by John
Gassner. Ixxvi -f 421pp. 5^8 x 8.

T42 Paperbound $2.00

EUGENE O'NEILL: THE MAN AND HIS PLAYS, B. H. Clark. The first published source-book on
O Neill s life and work. Analyzes each play from the early THE WEB up to THE ICEMAN
COMETH. Supplies much mforniation about environmental and dramatic influences, ix -f 182pp.
53-8 X 8. T379 Paperbound $1.25

INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LITERATURE, B. Dobrie. ed. Most compendious literary aid in its
price range. Extensive, categorized bibliography (with entries up to 1949) of more than
5,000 poets, dramatists, novelists, as well as historians, philosophers, economists, religious
writers, travellers, and scientists of literary stature. Information about manuscripts, impor¬
tant biographical data. Critical, historical, background works not simply listed, but evaluabd.
Each volume also contains a long introduction to the period it covers.

Vol I: THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE TO SKELTON. 1509, W. L. Renwick. H. Orton.
450pp. 51/8 X 7V8. T75 Clothbound $3.50

Vol. 11; THE ENGLISH RENAISSANCE, 1510-1688, V. de Sola Pinto. 381pp. SVs x 7Ve.

T76 Clothbound $3.50

Vol. Ill; THE AUGUSTANS AND ROMANTICS, 1689-1830, H. Dyson, J. Butt. 320pp. 5 i/b x TI/b.

T77 Clothbound $3.50

Vol. IV: THE VICTORIANS AND AFTER, 1830-1914, E. Batho, B. Oobrde. 360pp. SVb x 7Vk.

T78 Clothbound $3.50

EPIC AND ROMANCE, W. P. Ker. The standard survey of Medieval epic and romance by a fore¬
most authority on Medieval literature. Covers hisWical background, plot, literary analysis,
significance of Teutonic epics, Icelandic sagas, Beowulf, French chansons de geste, the
Niebeiungenlied, Arthurian romances, much more. 422pp. 5% x 8. T355 Paperbound $1.95

THE HEART OF EMERSON’S JOURNALS, Bliss Perry, ed. Emerson’s most intimate thoughts,
impressions, records of conversations with Channing, Hawthorne, Thorcau, etc., carefully
chosen from the 10 volumes of The Journals, "The essays do not reveal the power of
Emerson's mind . . .as do these hasty and informal writings,” N. Y. TIMES. Preface by
B. Perry. 370pp. 5% x 8. T447 Paperbound $1.85

A SOURCE BOOK IN THEATRICAL HISTORY, A. M. Nagler. (Formerly. "Sources of Theatrical
History.”) Over 300 selected passages by contemporary observers tell about styles of acting,
direction, make-up, scene designing, etc., in the theatre's great periods from ancient Greece
to the Th6atre Libre. "Indispensable complement to the study of drama,” EDUCATIONAL
THEATRE JOURNAL. Prof. Nagler, Yale Univ. School of Drama, also supplies notes, references.
85 illustrations. 611pp. 5% x 8. T515 Paperbound $2.75

THE ART OF THE STORY-TELLER, M. L. Shedlock. Regarded as the finest, most helpful book
on telling stories to children, by a great story-tellet. How to catch, hold, recapture attention;
how to choose material; many other aspects. Also includes: a 99-page selection of Miss
Shedlock’s most successful stories, extensive bibliography of other stories, xxi + 320pp.
5 :^ X 8. T245 Clothbound $3.50

THE DEVIL’S DICTIONARY, Ambrose Bierce. Over 1000 short, ironic definitions in alphabetical
order, by America's greatest satirist in the classical tradition. "Some of tife most gorgeous
witticisms in the English language," H. L. Mencken. 144pp. 5% x 8. T487 Paperbound $1.00

DOVER BOOKS

MUSIC

A DICTIONARY OF HYMNOLOGY, John Julian. More than 30.000 entries on individual hymns,
their authorship, textual variations, location of texts, dates and circumstances of composi¬
tion, denominational and ritual usages, the biographies of more than 9,000 hymn writers,
essays on Important topics such as children's hymns and Christmas carols, and hundreds
of thousands of other important facts about hymns which are virtually impossible to find
anywhere else. Convenient alphabetical listing, and a 200-page double-columned index of
first lines enable you to track down virtually any hymn ever written. Total of 1786pp.
6 V 4 X 9 V 4 . 2 volumes. T133. The Set, Ciothbound $15.00

STRUCTURAL HEARING, TONAL COHERENCE IN MUSIC. Felix Salzer. Extends the well-known
Schenker approach to include modern music, music of the middle ages, and Renaissance
music. Explores the phenomenon of tonal organization by discussing more than 500 composi¬
tions, and offers unusual new insights into the theory of composition and musical relation¬
ships. "The foundation on which all teaching in music theory has been based at this
college," Leopold Mannes, President, The Mannes College of Music. Total of 658pp. 6 Vi! x 9 V 4 .
2 volumes. S418 The set, Ciothbound $8.00

A GENERAL HISTORY OF MUSIC, Charles Burney. The complete history of music from the
Greeks up to 1789 by the 18th century musical historian who personally knew the great
Baroque composers. Covers sacred and secular, vocal and instrumental, operatic and sym¬
phonic music; treats theory, notation, forms, Instruments; discusses composers, performers,
important works. Invaluable as a source of information on the period for students, historians,
musicians. "Surprisingly few of Burney's statements have been invalidated by modern re¬

search . . . still of great value." NEW YORK TIMES. Edited and corrected by Frank Mercer.
35 figures. 1915pp. 5 V 2 x 8 V 2 . 2 volumes. T36 The set, Ciothbound $12.50

JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH, Phillip Spitta. Recognized as one of the greatest accomplishments
of musical scholarship and far and away the definitive coverage of Bach's works. Hundreds
of individual pieces are analyzed. Major works, such as the B Minor Mass and the St.

Matthew Passion are examined in minute detail. Spitta also deals with the works of

Buxtehude, Pachelbel, and others of the period. Can be read with profit even by those

without a knowledge of the technicalities of musical composition. "Unchallenged as the last
word on one of the supreme geniuses of music," John Barkham, SATURDAY REVIEW SYNDI¬
CATE. Total of 1819pp. 5^/8 X 8. 2 volumes. T252 The set, Ciothbound $10.00

HISTORY

THE IDEA OF PROGRESS, J. B. Bury. Prof. Bury traces the evolution of a central concept of
Western civilization in Greek, Roman. Medieval, and Renaissance thought to its flowering
in the 17th and 18th centuries. Introduction by Charles Beard, xl -f 357pp. 5^^ x 8 .

T39 Ciothbound $3.95
T40 Paperbound $1.95

THE ANCIENT GREEK HISTORIANS, J. B. Bury. Greek historians such as Herodotus, Thucydides,
Xenophon; Roman historians such as Tacitus. Caesar, Livy; scores of others fully analyzed
in terms of sources, concepts, influences, etc., by a great scholar and historian. 291pp.
5% X 8. T397 Paperbound $1.50

HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE, J. B. Bury. The standard work on the Byzantine
Empire from 395 A.D. to the death of Justinian in 565 A.D., by the leading Byzantine scholar
of our time. Covers political, social, cultural, theological, military history. Quotes contem¬
porary documents extensively. "Most unlikely that it will ever be superseded," Glanville
Downey, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library. Genealogical tables. 5 maps. Bibliography. 2 vols.
Total of 965pp. 5% X 8 . T398, T399 Paperbound, the set $4.00

GARONER'S PHOTOGRAPHIC SKETCH BOOK OF THE CIVIL WAR, Alexander Gardner. One of the

rarest and most valuable Civil War photographic collections exactly reproduced for the first
time since 1866. Scenes of Manassas, Bull Run, Harper's Ferry, Appomattox, Mechanicsville,
Fredericksburg, Gettysburg, etc,; battle ruins, prisons, arsenals, a slave pen, fortifications,-
Lincoln on the field, officers, men, corpses. By one of the most famous pioneers in docu¬
mentary photography. Original copies of the "Sketch Book" sold for $425 in 1952. Introduc¬
tion by E. Bleiler. 100 full-page 7 x 10 photographs (original size). 244pp. 10^4 x 8 V 2

T476 Ciothbound $6.00

THE WORLD'S GREAT SPEECHES, L. Copeland and L. Lamm, eds. 255 speeches from Pericles to
Churchill, Dylan Thomas. Invaluable as a guide to speakers; fascinating as history past and
present; a source of much difficult-to-fmd material. Includes an extensive section of informal
and humorous speeches. 3 indices: Topic, Author, Nation, xx -f- 745pp. 53/8 x 8.

T468 Paperbound $2.49

FOUNDERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. E. K. Rand. The best non-technical discussion of the
transformation of Latin paganism into medieval civilization. Tertullian, Gregory, Jerome,
Boethius, Augustine, the Neoplatonists, other crucial figures, philosophies examined. Excel¬
lent for the intelligent non-specialist. "Extraordinarily accurate," Richard McKeon, THE
NATION, ix -f 365pp. 5% x 8. T369 Paperbound $1.85

CATALOG OF

THE POLITICAL THOUGHT OF PLATO AND ARISTOTLE, Ernest Barker. The standard, compre¬
hensive exposition of Greek political thought. Covers every aspect of the "Republic" and the
"Politics" as well as minor writings, other philosophers, theorists of the period, and the
later history of Greek political thought. Unabridged edition. 584pp. 5^ x 8.

T521 Paperbound $1.85

PHILOSOPHY

THE GIFT OF LANGUAGE. M. Schlauch. (Formerly. "The Gift of Tongues.") A sound, middie-
level treatment of linguistic families, word* histories, grammatic'al processes, semantics,
language taboos, word-coining of Joyce, Cummings, Stein, etc. 232 bibliographical notes.
350pp. 5^ X 8 . T243 Paperbound $1.85

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HEGEL, W. T. Stace. The first work in English to give a complete and
connected view of Hegel's entire system. Especially valuable to those who do not have
time to study the highly complicated original texts, yet want an accurate presentation by
a most reputable scholar of one of the most influential 19th century thinkers. Includes a
14 X 20 fold-out chart of Hegelian system. 536pp. x 8. T254 Paperbound $2.00

ARISTOTLE, A. E. Taylor. A lucid, non-technical account of Aristotle written by a foremost
Platonist. Covers life and works; thought on matter, form, causes, logic, God, physics,
metaphysics, etc. Bibliography. New index compiled for this edition. 128pp. 5% x 8.

T280 Paperbound $1.00

GUIDE TO PHILOSOPHY, C. E. M. Joad. This baste work describes the major philosophic prob¬
lems and evaluates the answers propounded by great philosophers from the Greeks to
Whitehead, Russell. "The finest introduction," BOSTON TRANSCRIPT. Bibliography. 592pp.
5^ x 8. T297 Paperbound $2.00

LANGUAGE AND MYTH, E. Cassirer. Cassirer’s brilliant demonstration that beneath both lan¬
guage and myth lies an unconscious "grammar" of experience whose categories and canons
are not those of logical thought. Introduction and translation by Susanne Langer. Index.
X -f 103pp. 5^8 X 8 . T51 Paperbound $1.25

SUBSTANCE AND FUNCTION, EINSTEIN’S THEORY OF RELATIVITY, E. Cassirer. This double vol¬
ume contains the German philosopher’s profound philosophical formulation of the differences
between traditional logic and the new logic of science. Number, space, energy, relativity,
many other topics are treated in detail. Authorized translation by W. C. and M. C. Swabey.
xii 4- 465pp. 53/k x 8. T50 Paperbound $2.00

THE PHILOSOPHICAL WOHKS OF DESCARTES. The definitive English edition, in two volumes,
of all major philosophical works and letters of Ren6 Descartes, father of modern philosophy
of knowledge and science. Translated by E. S. Haldane and G. Ross. Introductory notes.
Total of 842pp. 5% x 8. T71 Vol. 1, Paperbound $2.00

T72 Vol. 2, Paperbound $2.00

ESSAYS IN EXPERIMENTAL LOGIC. J. Dewey. Based upon Dewey's theory that knowledge
implies a judgment which in turn implies an inquiry, these papers consider such topics as
the thought of Bertrand Russell, pragmatism, the logic of values, antecedents of thought,
data and meanings. 452pp. SVs x 8. T73 Paperbound $1.95

THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY, G. W. F. Hegel. This classic of Western thought is Hegel’s
detailed formulation of the thesis that history is not chance but a rational process, the
realization of the Spirit of Freedom. Translated and introduced by J. Sibree. Introduction
by C. Hegel. Special introduction for this edition by Prof. Carl Friedrich, Harvard University,
xxxix + 447pp. 5% x 8. T112 Paperbound $1.85

THE WILL TO BELIEVE and HUMAN IMMORTALITY, W. James. Two of James’s most profound
investigations of human belief in God and immortality, bound as one volume. Both are
powerful expressions of James’s views on chance vs. determinism, pluralism vs. monism,
will and intellect, arguments for survival after death, etc. Two prefaces. 429pp. 5% x 8.

T294 Clothbound $3.75
T291 Paperbound $1.65

INTRODUCTION TO SYMBOLIC LOGIC, S. Langer. A lucid, general introduction to modern
logic, covering forms, classes, the use of symbols, the calculus of propositions, the Boole-
Schroeder and the Russeli-Whitehead systems, etc. "One of the clearest and simplest intro*
ductlons," MATHEMATICS GAZETTE. Second, enlarged, revised edition. 368pp. 5% x 8.

S164 Paperbound $1.75

MIND AND THE WORLD-ORDER, C. I. Lewis. Building upon the work of Peirce, James, and
Dewey, Professor Lewis outlines a theory of knowledge in terms of "conceptual pragmatism,"
and demonstrates why the traditional understanding of the a priori must be abandoned.
Appendices, xiv + 446pp. 5% x 8. T359 Paperbound $1.95

THE GUIDE FOR THE PERPLEXED,M.Maimonides One of the great philosophical works of all
time, Maimonides' formulation of the meeting-ground between Old Testament and Aristotelian
thought IS essential to anyone interested in Jewish, Christian, and Moslem thought in the
Middle Ages. 2nd revised edition of the Friedlander translation. Extensive introduction, lix
-f 414pp. 5^ x 8. T351 Paperbound $1.85

DOVER BOOKS

THE PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF PEIRCE, J. Buchler, ed. (Formerly, "The Philosophy of
PeircH,”) This carefully integrated selection of Peirce's papers is considered the best cov¬
erage of the complete thought of one of the greatest philosophers of modern times. Covers
Peirce's work on the theory of signs, pragmatism, epistemology, symbolic logic, the scientific
method, chance, etc. xvi -I 386pp. 5 48 x 8. T216 Clothbound $5.00

T217 Paperbound $1.95

HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. W. Windeiband. Considered the clearest survey of Greek
and Roman philosophy. Examines Thales. Anaximander, .Anaximenes, Heraclitus, the Eleatics,
Empedocles, the Pythagoreans, the Sophists, Socrates, Democritus, Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics,
Neo-platonists, etc. 50 pages on Plato; 70 on Aristotle. 2nd German edition tr. by H. E.
Cushman, xv -f 393pp. 5% x 8. T357 Paperbound $1.75

INTRODUCTION TO SYMBOLIC LOGIC AND ITS APPLICATIONS. R. Carnap. A comprehensive,
rigorous introduction to modern logic by perhaps its greatest living master. Includes
demonstrations of applications in mathematics, physics, biology. “Of the rank of a
masterpiece," Z. fiir Mathematik und ihre Grenzgebiete. Over 300 exercises, xvi + 241 pp.
5% X 8. Clothbound $4.00

S453 Paperbound $1.85

SCEPTICISM AND ANIMAL FAITH, G. Santayana. Santayana's unusually lucid exposition of the
difference between the independent existence of objects and the essence our mind attributes
to them, and of the necessity of scepticism as a form of belief and animal faith as a neces¬
sary condition of knowledge. Discusses belief, memory, intuition, symbols, etc. xii -f- 314pp.
5% X 8. T235 Clothbound $3.50

T236 Paperbound $1.50

THE ANALYSIS OF MATTER, B. Russeii. With his usual brilliance, Russell analyses physics,
causality, scientific inference, Weyl's theory, tensors, invariants, periodicity, etc. in order
to discover the basic concepts of scientific thought about matter. “Most thorough treatment
of the subject," THE NATION. Introduction. 8 figures, viii -f 408pp. 54 /b x 8 .

T231 Paperbound $1.95

THE SENSE OF BEAUTY, G. Santayana. This important philosophical study of why, when, and
how beauty appears, and what conditions must be fulfilled, is in itself a revelation of the
beauty of language. “It is doubtful if a better treatment of the subject has since appeared,"
PEABODY JOURNAL, ix -f- 2;bpp. 54^ X 8 . T238 Paperbound $1.00

THE CHIEF WORKS OF SPINOZA. In two volumes. Vol. I: The Theologico-Political Treatise and
the Political Treatise. Vol. II; On the Improvement of Understanding. The Ethics, and
Selected Letters. The permanent and enduring ideas in these works on God, the universe,
religion, society, etc., have had tremendous impact on later philosophical works. Introduc¬
tion. Total of 862pp. 5% x 8. T249 Vol. I. Paperbound $1.50

T250 Vol. II, Paperbound $1.50

TRAGIC SENSE OF LIFE, M. de Unamuno. The acknowledged masterpiece of one of Spain's
most influential thinkers. Between the despair at the inevitable death of man and all his
works, and the desire for immortality, Unamuno finds a “saving incertitude." Called "a
masterpiece." by the ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. xxx + 332pp. 5% x 8.

T257 Paperbound $1.95

EXPERIENCE AND NATURE, John Dewey. The enlarged, revised edition of the Paul Carus
lectures (1925). One of Dewey’s clearest presentations of the philosophy of empirical natural¬
ism which reestablishes the continuity between "inner” experience and "outer" nature.
These lectures are among the most significant ever delivered by an American philosopher.
457pp. 54% X 8 . T471 Paperbound $1.85

PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES, M. de Wuif. A semi-popular survey of
medieval intellectual life, religion, philosophy, science, the arts, etc. that covers feudalism
vs. Catholicism, rise of the universities, mendicant orders, and similar topics. Bibliography,
viii + 320pp. 54% x 8. T284 Paperbound $1.75

AN INTRODUCTION TO SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY, M. de Wulf. (Formerly. "Scholasticism Old
and New.") Prof, de Wulf covers the central scholastic tradition from St. Anselm, Albertus
Magnus. Thomas Aquinas, up to Suarez in the 17th century; and then treats the modern
revival of. scholasticism, the Louvain position, relations with Kantianism and positivism,
etc. xvi + 271pp. 54% X 8. T296 Clothbound $3.50

T283 Paperbound $1.75

A HISTORY OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY, H. Hdffding. An exceptionally clear and detailed coverage
of Western philosophy from the Renaissance to the end of the 19th century. Both major
and minor figures are examined in terms of theory of knowledge, logic, cosmology, psychology.
Covers Pomponazzi, Bodin, Boehme, Telesius, Bruno, Copernicus, Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes,
Locke, Hume, Kant, Fichte, Schopenhauer, Mill, Spencer, Langer, scores of others. A standard
reference work. 2 volumes. Total of 1159pp. 54% x 8. T117 Vol. 1, Paperbound $2.00

T118 Vol. 2, Paperbound $2.00

LANGUAGE, TRUTH AND LOGIC, A. J. Ayer. The first full-length development of Logical
Posivitism in English. Building on the work of Schlick, Russell, Carnap, and the Vienna
school, Ayer presents the tenets of one of the most important systems of modern philosoph¬
ical thought. 160pp. 54% X 8. TIO Paperbound $1.25

CATALOG OF

ORIENTALIA AND RELIGION

THE MYSTERIES OF MITHRA, F. Cumont. The great Belgian scholar’s definitive study of the
Persian mystery religion that almost vanquished Christianity in the ideological struggle for
the Homan Empire. A masterpiece of scholarly detection that reconstructs secret doctrines,
organization, rites. Mithraic art is discussed and analyzed. 70 illus. 239pp. 5 ^/h x B.

T323 Paperbound $1.85

CHRISTIAN AND ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY OF ART. A. K. Coomaraswamy. The late art historian
and orientalist discusses artistic symbolism, the role of traditional culture In enriching art,
medieval art, folklore, philosophy of art, other similar topics. Bibliography. 148pp. 5 ^b x 8 .

T378 Paperbound $1.25

TRANSFORMATION OF NATURE IN ART, A. K. Coomaraswamy. A basic work on Asiatic religious
art. Includes discussions of religious art in Asia and Medieval Europe (exemplified by
Meister Eckhart). the origin and use of images in Indian art, Indian Medieval aesthetic
manuals, and other fascinating, little known topics. Glossaries of Sanskrit and Chinese
terms. Bibliography. 41pp. of notes. 245pp. S^/a x 8. T368 Paperbound $1.75

ORIENTAL RELIGIONS IN ROMAN PAGANISM, F. Cumont. This well-known study treats the
ecstatic cults of Syria and Phrygia iCybele, Attis, Adonis, their orgies and mutilatory rites);
the mysteries of Egypt (Serapis, Isis. Osins): Persian dualism; Mithraic cults-, Hermes
Tnsmegistus, Ishtar, Astarte, etc. and their influence on the religious thought of the Roman
Empire. Introduction. 55pp. of notes; extensive bibliography, xxiv -f 298pp. 5^/8 x 8.

T321 Paperbound $1.75

ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, AND PSYCHOLOGY

PRIMITIVE MAN AS PHILOSOPHER, P. Ratlin. A standard anthropological work based on
Radio’s Investigations of the Winnebago, Maori, Batak, Zuni, other primitive tribes. Describes
primitive thought on the purpose of life, marital relations, death, personality, gods, etc.
Extensive selections of Original primitive documents. Bibliography, xviii + 420pp. 5^8 x 8.

T392 Paperbound $2.00

PRIMITIVE RELIGION, P. Radin. Radio’s thoroughgoing treatment of supernatural beliefs,
shamanism, initiations, religious expression, etc. in primitive societies. Arunta, Ashanti,
Aztec, Bushman, Crow, Fijian, many other tribes examined. "Excellent,” NATURE. New
preface by the author. Bibliographic notes, x + 322pp. 53/e x 8. T393 Paperbound $1.85

SEX \N PSYCHO-ANALYSIS, S. Ferenezi. (Formerly, "Contributions to Psycho-analysis.”) 14
selected papers on impotence, transference, analysis and children, dreams, obscene words,
homosexuality, paranoia, etc. by an associate of Freud. Also included: THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PSYCHO-ANALYSIS, by Ferenezi and Otto Rank. Two books bound as one. Total of 406pp.
54'8 X 8. T324 Paperbound $1.85

THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY. William James. The complete text of the famous “long
course,” one of the great books of Western thought. An almost incredible amount of infor¬
mation about psychological processes, the stream of consciousness, habit, time perception,
memory, emotions, reason, consciousness of self, abnormal phenomena, and similar topics.
Based on James's own discoveries integrated with the work of Descartes, Locke, Hume,
Royce, Wundt, Berkeley. Lotse, Herbart, scores of others, “A classic of interpretation,”
PSYCHIATRIC QUARTERLY. 94 illus. 1408pp. 2 volumes. x 8.

T381 Voi. 1, Paperbound $2.50

T382 Vol. 2, Paperbound $2.50

THE POLISH PEASANT IN EUROPE AND AMERICA, W. I. Thomas, F. Znaniecki. Monumental
sociological study of peasant primary groups (family and community) and the disruptions
produced by a new industrial system and emi^ation to America, by two of the foremost

sociologists of recent times. One of the most important works in sociological thought.

Includes hundreds of pages of primary documentation-, point by point analysis of causes
of social decay, breakdown of morality, crime, drunkenness, prostitution, etc. 2nd revised
edition. 2 volumes. Total of 2250pp. 6x9. T478 2 volume set. Clothbound $12.50

FOLKWAYS, W. G. Sumner. The great Yale sociologist's detailed exposition of thousands of
social, sexual, and .••eligious customs in hundreds of cultures from ancient Greece to Modern
Western societies. Preface by A. G. Keller. Introduction by William Lyon Phelps. 705pp.
5^6 X 8 . S508 Paperbound $2.49

BEYOND PSYCHOLOGY, Otto Rank. The author, an early associate of Freud, uses psychoanalytic
techniques of myth-analysis to explore ultimates of human existence. Treats love. Immor¬
tality, the soul, sexual identity, kingship, sources of state power, many other topics which
illuminate the irrational basis of human existence. 291pp. 5 ^b x 8 . T485 Paperbound $1.75

ILLUSIONS AND DELUSIONS OF THE SUPERNATURAL AND THE OCCULT, 0. H. Raweliffe. A ra¬
tional, scientific examination of crystal gazing, automatic writing, table turning, stigmata,
the Indian rope trick, dowsing, telepathy, clairvoyance, ghosts, ESP, PK, thousands of other
supposedly occult phenomena. Originally titled “The Psychology of the Occult.” 14 illustra¬
tions. 551pp. 53/8 X 8. T503 Paperbound $2.00

DOVER BOOKS

YOGA: A SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION, Kovoor T. Behanan. A scientific study of the physiolORical
and psychological effects of Yoga discipline, written under the auspices of the Yale Uni¬
versity Institute of Human Relations. Foreword by W. A. Miles, Yale Univ. 17 photographs.
290pp. 5% X 8. T505 Paperbound $1.65

HOAXES, C. D. MacDougall. Delightful, entertaining, yet scholarly exposition of how hoaxes
start, why they succeed, documented with stones of hundreds of the most famous hoaxes.
"A stupendous collection . . . and shrewd analysis. "NEW YORKER. New, revised edition.
54 photographs. 320pp. 5% x 8 . T465 Paperbound $1.75

CREATIVE POWER: THE EDUCATION OF YOUTH IN THE CREATIVE ARTS. Hughes Mearns. Named

by the National Education Association as one of the 20 foremost books on education in
recent times. Tells how to help children express themselves m drama, poetry, music, art,
develop latent creative power. Should be read by every parent, teacher. New, enlarged,
revised edition. Introduction. 272pp. 5^/8 x 8 . T490 Paperbound $1.50

LANGUAGES

NEW RUSSIAN-ENGLISH, ENGLISH-RUSSIAN DICTIONARY, M. A. O'Brien. Over 70.000 entries in
new orthography! Idiomatic usages, colloquialisms. One of the few dictionaries that indicate
accent changes in conjugation and declension. "One of the best," Prof. E. J. Simmons,
Cornell. First names, geographical terms, bibliography, many other features. 738pp. AVz x 6 V 4 .

T208 Paperbound $2.00

MONEY CONVERTER AND TIPPING GUIDE FOR EUROPEAN TRAVEL, C. Vomacka. Invaluable, handy
source of currency regulations, conversion tables, tipping rules, postal rates, much other
travel information for every European country plus Israel, Egypt and Turkey. 12Bpp. 3V? x SVa.

T260 Paperbound 60^

MONEY CONVERTER AND TIPPING GUIDE FOR TRAVEL IN THE AMERICAS (including the United
States and Canada.), C. Vomacka. The information you need for informed and confident travel
in the Americas: money conversion tables, tipping guide, postal, telephone rates, etc.
128pp. 31/2 x bVH. T261 Paperbound 65^

OUTCH ENGLISH, ENGLISH-OUTCH DICTIONARY, F. G. Renter. The most convenient, practical
Dutch-English dictionary on the market. New orthography. More than 60,000 entries: idioms,
compounds, technical terms, etc. Gender of nouns indicated, xviii + 571pp. 5V? x 6 V 4 .

T224 Clothbound $2.50

LEARN DUTCH!, F. G. Renicr. The most satisfactory and easily-used grammar of modern
Dutch. Used and recommended by the Fuibright Commitlee in the Netherlands. Over 1200
simple exercises lead to mastery of spoken and written Dutch, Dutch-English, English-Dutch
vocabularies. 181pp. 4 V 4 x 7 V 4 . T441 Clothbound $1.75

PHRASE AND SENTENCE DICTIONARY OF SPOKEN RUSSIAN, Engiish-Russian, Russian-English.
Based on phrases and complete sentences, rather than isolated words; recognized as one of
the best methods of learning the idiomatic speech of a country. Over 11,500 entries, Indexed
by single words, with more than 32,000 English and Russian sentences and phrases, in imme¬
diately usable form. Probably the largest list ever published. Shows accent changes in con¬
jugation and declension; irregular forms listed in both alphabetical place and under main
form of word. 15,000 word introduction covering Russian sounds, writing, grammar, syntax.
15-page appendix of geographical names, money, important signs, given names, foods,
special Soviet terms, etc. Travellers, businessmen, students, government employees have
found this their best source for Russian expressions. Originally published as U.S. Government
Technical Manual TM 30-944. iv -f 573pp. 5% x 8 %. T496 Paperbound $2.75

PHRASE AND SENTENCE DICTIONARY OF SPOKEN SPANISH, Spanish-English, English-Spanish.
Compiled from spoken Spanish, emphasizing idiom and colloquial usage in both Castilian and
Latin-American. More than 16,000 entries containing over 25,000 idioms—the largest list of
idiomatic constructions ever published. Complete sentences given, indexed under single words
-language in immediately usable form, for travellers, businessmen, students, etc. 25'page
introduction provides rapid survey of sounds, grammar, syntax, with full consideration of irreg¬
ular verbs. Especially apt in modern treatment of phrases and structure. 17'page glossary
gives translations of geographical names, money values, numbers, national holidays, important
street signs, useful expressions of high frequency, plus unique 7'page glossary of Spanish and
Spanish-American foods and dishes. Originally published as U.S. Government Technical Man¬
ual TM 30-90C. iv + 513pp. 5% x 8%. T495 Paperbound $1.75

CATALOG OF

SAY IT language phrase books

“SAY IT” in the foreign language of your choice! We have sold over V 2 million copies of these
popular, useful language books. They will not make you an expert linguist overnight, but they
do cover most practical matters of everyday life abroad.

Over 1000 useful phrases, expressions, with additional variants, substitutions.

Modern! Useful! Hundreds of phrases not available in other texts: "Nylon.” “air-condi¬
tioned,” etc.

The ONLY inexpensive phrase book completely indexed. Everything is available at a flip
of your finger, ready for use.

Prepared by native linguists, travel experts.

Based on years jf travel experience abroad.

This handy phrase book may be used by itself, or it may supplement any other text or
course; it provides a living element. Used by many colleges and institutions: Hunter College;
Barnard College; Army Ordnance School, Aberdeen; and many others.

Available, 1 book per language-.

Danish (T818) 75C
Dutch T(817) 75C

English (for German-speaking people) (T 8 OI 1 60C
English (for Italian-speaking people) (T816'> 60C
English (for Spanish-speaking people) (T802) 60C
Esperanto (T820) 75(

French (T803) 60C
German (T804) 60C
Modern Greek (T813) 750
Hebrew (T805) 600

Italian (T806) 600
Japanese (T807) 600
Norwegian (TB14) 750
Russian (T810) 750
Spanish (T811) 600
Turkish (T821) 750
Yiddish (T815) 750
Swedish (T812) 750
Polish (T808) 7.50
Portuguese (T809) 750

LISTEN & LEARN language record sets

LISTEN & LEARN is the only language record course designed especially to meet your travel
needs, or help you learn essential foreign language quickly by yourself, or In coniunction with
any school course, by m^ans of the automatic association method. Each set contains three
33V5 rpm long- playing records IV 2 hours of recorded speech by eminent native
speakers who are professors at Columbia, N.Y.U., Queens College and other leading univer¬
sities. The sets are priced far below other sets of similar quality, yet they contain many
special features not found in other record sets;

* Over 800 selected phrases and sentences, a basic vocabulary of over 3200 words.

* Both English and foreign language recorded; with a pause for your repetition.

* Designed for persons with limited time; no time wasted on material you cannot use
immediately.

* Living, modern expressions that answer modern needs: drugstore items, “air-conditioned,”
etc.

* 128-196 page manuals contain everything on the records, plus simple pronunciation
guides.

* Manual is fully indexed; find the phrase you want instantly.

* High fidelity recording -equal to any records costing up to $6 each.

The phrases on these records cover 41 different categories useful to the traveller or student
interested in learning the living, spoken language: greetings, introductions, making yourself
understood, passing customs, planes, trains, boats, buses, taxis, nightclubs, restaurants,
menu items, sports, concerts, cameras, automobile travel, repairs, drugstores, doctors,
dentists, medicines, barber shops, beauty parlors, laundries, many, many more.

"Excellent . . . among the very best on the market,” Prof. Mario Pei, Dept, of Romance

Languages, Columbia University, “inexpensive and well-done ... an ideal present,”
CHICAGO SUNDAY TRIBUNE. “More genuinely helpful than anything of its kind which I have
previously encountered.” Sidney Clark, well-known author of “ALL THE BEST” travel books.
Each set contains 3 33V? rpm pure vinyl records, 128- 196 page with full

record text, and album. One language per set. LISTEN & LEARN record sets are now avail¬
able in—

FRENCH the set $4.95 GERMAN the set $4.95

ITALIAN the set $4.95 SPANISH the set $4.95

RUSSIAN the set $5.95 JAPANESE * the set $5.95

* Available Sept. 1, 1959

UNCONDITIONAL GUARANTEE: Dover Publications stands behind every Listen and Learn record

set. If you are dissatisfied with these sets for any reason whatever, return them within

10 days and your money will be refunded in full.

DOVER BOOKS

ART HISTORY

STICKS AND STONES, Lewis Mumford. An examination of forces influencing American archi¬
tecture: the medieval tradition in early New England, the classical influence in Jefferson’s
time, the Brown Decades, the imperial facade, the machine age, etc. “A truly remarkable
book," SAT. REV. OF LITERATURE. 2nd revised edition. 21 illus. xvii + 228pp. 5% x 8.

T202 Paperbouifd $1.60

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF AN IDEA, Louis Sullivan. The architect whom Frank Lloyd Wright
called "the master,” records the development of the theories that revolutionized America's
skyline. 34 full-page plates of Sullivan’s finest work. New introduction by R. M. Line,
xiv + 335pp. 5% x 8. T281 Paperbound $1.85

THE MATERIALS AND TECHNIOUES OF MEDIEVAL PAINTING, D. V. Thompson. An invaluable
study of carriers and grounds, binding media, pigments, metals used in painting, al fresco
and al secco techniques, burnishing, etc. used by the medieval masters. Preface by Bernard
Berenson. 239pp. 5% x 8, T327 Paperbound $1.85

PRINCIPLES OF ART HISTORY, H. Wolfflin. This remarkably instructive work demonstrates the
tremendous change in artistic conception from the 14th to the 18th centuries, by analyzing
164 works by Botticelli, Diirer, Hobbema, Holbein, Hals, Titian, Rembrandt, Vermeer, etc.,
and pointing out exactly what is meant by "baroque," "classic," "primitive," "picturesque,”
and other basic terms of art history and criticism. "A remarkable lesson in the art of
seeing," SAT. REV. OF LITERATURE. Translated from the 7th German edition. 150 Illus.
254pp. eVa X 9V4. T276 Paperbound $2.00

FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN ART. A. Ozenfant. Stimulating discussion of human creativity from
paleolithic cave painting to modern painting, architecture, decorative arts. Fully illustrated
with works of Gns, Lipchitz, Leger, Picasso, primitive, modern artifacts, architecture, indus¬
trial art, much more. 226 illustrations. 368pp. 6V8 x T215 Paperbound $1.95

HANDICRAFTS, APPLIED ART, ART SOURCES, ETC.

WILD FOWL DECOYS, J. Barber. The standard work on this fascinating branch ot folk art,
ranging from Jndian mud and grass devices to realistic wooden decoys. Discusses styles,
types, periods*; gives full information on how to make decoys. 140 illustrations (including
14 new plates) show decoys and provide full sets of plans tor handicrafters, artists, hunters,
and students of folk art. 281pp. 77/8 x 10^4. Deluxe edition. Til Clothbound $8.50

METALWORK AND ENAMELLING, H. Maryon. Probably the best book ever written on the
subject. Tells everything necessary for the home manufacture of jewelry, rings, ear
pendants, bowls, etc. Covers materials, tools, soldering, filigree, setting stones, raising
patterns, repouss6 work, damascening, niello, cloisonne, polishing, assaying, casting, and
dozens of other techniques. The best substitute for apprenticeship to a master metalworker.
363 photos and figures. 374pp. 5V2 x SVz. T183 Clothbound $7.50

SHAKER FURNITURE, E. 0. and F. Andrews. The most illuminating study of Shaker furniture
ever written. Covers chronology, craftsmanship, houses, shops, etc. includes over 200
photographs of chairs, tables, clocks, beds, benches, etc. "Mr. & Mrs. Andrews know all
there is to know about Shaker furniture," Mark Van Doren, NATION. 48 full-page plates.
192pp. Deluxe cloth binding. 77/8 x 10^4. T7 Clothbound $6.00

PRIMITIVE ART, Franz Boas. A great American anthropologist covers theory, technical vir¬
tuosity, styles, symbolism, patterns, etc. of primitive art. The more than 900 illustrations
will interest artists, designers, craftworkers. Over 900 illustrations. 376pp. 5% x 8.

T25 Paperbound $1.95

ON THE LAWS OF JAPANESE PAINTING, H. Bowie. The best possible substitute for lessons
from an oriental master. Treats both spirit and technique; exercises for control of the
brush; inks, brushes, colors; use of dots, lines to express whole moods, etc. 220 illus.
132pp. 6Vk x 9V4. T30 Paperbound $1.95

HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT, F. S. Meyer. One of the largest collections of copyright-free tradi¬
tional art: over 3300 line cuts of Greek, Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, 18th and
19th century art motifs (tracery, geometric elements, flower and animal motifs, etc.) and
decorated objects (chairs, thrones, weapons, vases, jewelry, armor, etc.). Full text. 3300
illustrations. 562pp. 5% x 8. T302 Paperbound $2.00

THREE CLASSICS OF ITALIAN CALLIGRAPHY. Oscar Ogg, ed. Exact reproductions of three
famous Renaissance calligraphic works: Arrighi’s OPERINA and IL MODO, Tagliente's LO
PRESENTE LIBRO, and Palatine’s LIBRO NUOVO. More than 200 complete alphabets, thousands
of lettered specimens, in Papal Chancery and other beautiful, ornate handwriting. Intro¬
duction. 245 plates. 282pp. 6V8 x 9V4. T212 Paperbound $1.95

THE HISTORY AND TECHNIOUES OF LETTERING, A. Nesbitt. A thorough history of lettering
from the ancient Egyptians to the present, and a 65-page course in lettering for artists.
Every major development In lettering history is illustrated by a complete alphabet. Fully
analyzes such masters as Caslon, Koch, Garamont, Jenson, and many more. 89 alphabets, 165
other specimens. 317pp. 5% x 8. T427 Paperbound $2.00

CATALOG OF

LETTERING AND ALPHABETS, J. A. Cavanagh. An unabridged reissue of “Lettering," containing
the full discussion, analysis, illustration of 89 basic hand lettering tyles based on Caslon,
Bodoni. Gothic, many other types. Hundreds of technical hints on construction, strokes,
pens, brushes, etc. 89 alphabets, 72 lettered specimens, which may be reproduced permission-
free. 121pp. 9^4 X 8. ^ T53 Paperbound $1.25

THE HUMAN FIGURE IN MOTION, Eadweard Muybridge. The largest collection in print of
Muybridge's famous high-speed action photos. 4789 photographs in more than 500 action-
strip-sequences (at shutter speeds up to l/6000th of a second) illustrate men, women,
children—mostly undraped- performing such actions as walking, running, getting up, lying
down, carrying objects, throwing, etc. “An unparalleled dictionary of action for all artists,"
AMERICAN ARTIST. 390 full-page plates, with 4789 photographs. Heavy glossy stock, reinforced
binding with headbands. 7% x 10%. T204 Clothbound $10.00

ANIMALS IN MOTION, Eadweard Muybridge. The largest collection of animal action photos
In print. 34 different animals (horses, mules, oxen, goats, camels, pigs, cats, lions, gnus,
deer, monkeys, eagles—and 22 others) in 132 characteristic actions. All 3919 photographs
are taken in series at speeds up to 1. 1600th of a second, offering artists, biologists, car¬
toonists a remarkable opportunity to see exactly how an ostrich's head bobs when running,
how a lion puts his foot down, how an elephant's knee bends, how a bird flaps his wings,
thousands of other hard-to-catc!i details. “A really marvelous series of plates," NATURE.
380 fuU-pages of plates. Heavy glossy stock, reinforced binding with headbands. 77/a xlO%.

T203 Clothbound $10.00

THE BOOK OF SIGNS, R. Koch. 493 symbols - crosses, monograms, astrological, biological
symbols, runes, etc. from ancient manuscripts, cathedrals, coins, catacombs, pottery. May
be reproduced permission-free. 493 illustrations by Frit/ Kredel. 104pp. 6 Vb x 9 V4.

T162 Paperbound $1.00

A HANDBOOK OF EARLY ADVERTISING ART, C. P. Hornung. The largest collection of copyright-
free early advertising art ever compiled. Vol. I: 2.000 illustrations of animals, old automo¬
biles. buildings, allegorical figures, frre engines. Indians, ships, trams, more than 33 other
categories! Vol II: Over 4,000 typographical specimens; 600 Roman. Gothic, Barnum, Old
English faces; 630 ornamental type faces; hundreds of scrolLs, initials, flourishes, etc. “A
remarkable collection," PRINTERS' INK.

Vol. 1: Pictorial Volume, Over 2000 illustrations. 256pp. 9 x 12. T122 Clothbound $10.00

Vol. II; Typographical Volume, Over 4000 speciments. 319pp. 9 x 12. T123 Clothbound $10.00

Two volume set, Clothbound, only $18.50

DESIGN FOR ARTISTS AND CRAFTSMEN, L. Wolchonok. The most thorough course on the
creation of art motifs and designs. Shows you step-by-step, with hundreds of examples and
113 detailed exercises, how to create original designs from geometric patterns, plants,
birds, animals, humans, and man-made objects. “A great contribution to the field of design
and crafts," N. Y. SOCIETY OF CRAFTSMEN. More than 1300 entirely new illustrations.
XV + 207pp. 77/e x 10%. T274 Clothbound $4.95

HANDBOOK OF DESIGNS AND DEVICES. C. P. Hornung. A remarkable working collection of
1836 basic designs^and variations, all copyright-free. Variations of circle, line, cross, diamond,
swastika, star, scroll, shield, many more. Notes on symbolism. “A necessity to every
designer who would be original without having to labor heavily," ARTIST and ADVERTISER.
204 plates. 240pp. 5% x 8.

T125 Paperbound $1.90

THE UNIVERSAL PENMAN, George Bickham. Exact reproduction of beautiful 18th century
book of handwriting. 22 complete alphabets in finest English roundhand, other scripts, over
2000 elaborate flourishes, 122 calligraphic illustrations, etc. Material is copyright*free. “An
essential part of any art library, and a book of permanent value," AMERICAN ARTIST. 212
plates. 224pp. 9 x 13%. T20 Clothbound $10.00

AN ATLAS OF ANATOMY FOR ARTISTS. F. Schider. This standard work contains 189 full-page
plates, more than 647 illustrations of all aspects of the human skeleton, musculature, cutaway
portions of the body, each part of the anatomy, hand forms, eyelids, breasts, location of
muscles under the flesh, etc. 59 plates illustrate how Michelangelo, da Vinci, Goya, 15 others,
drew human anatomy. New 3rd edition enlarged by 52 new illustrations by Cloquet, Baresay.
“The standard reference tool,” AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. “Excellent,” AMERICAN
ARTIST. 189 plates, 647 illustraiions. xxvi -f- 192pp. 77 /b x 10%. T241 Clothbound $6.00

AN ATLAS OF ANIMAL ANATOMY FOR ARTISTS, W. Ellenberger. H. Baum. H. Dittrich. The largest,
richest animal anatomy for artists in English. Form, musculature, tendons, bone structure,
expression, detailed cross sections of head, other features, of the horse, lion, dog, cat. deer,
seal, kangaroo, cow, bull, goat, monkey, hare, many other animals. “Highly recommended,”
DESIGN. Second, revised, enlarged edition with new plates from Cuvier, Stubbs, etc. 288
illustrations. 153pp. 11% x 9. T82 Clothbound $6.00

ANIMAL DRAWING: ANATOMY AND ACTION FOR ARTISTS, C. R. Knight. 158 studies, with full
accompanying text, of such animals as the gorilla, bear, bison, dromedary, camel, vulture,
pelican, iguana, shark, etc., by one of the greatest modern masters of animal drawing.
Innumerable tips on how to get life expression into your work. “An excellent reference
work,' SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE. 158 illustrations. 156pp. 10% x 8%.

T426 Paperbound $2.00

DOVER BOOKS

THE CRAFTSMAN’S HANDBOOK, Cennino Cennini. The finest English translation of IL LIBRO
DELL’ ARTE, the 15th century introduction to art technique that is both a mirror of Quatro-
cento life and a source of many useful but -nearly forgotten facets of the painter's art.
4 illustrations, xxvii + 142pp. D. V. Thompson, translator. bVa x 9V4. T54 Paperbound $1.50

THE BROWN DECADES, Lewis Mumford. A picture of the “buried renaissance’’ of the post-
Clvit War period, and the founding of modern architecture (Sullivan, Richardson, Root,
Roebling), landscape development (Marsh. Olmstead, Eliot), and the graphic arts (Homer,
Eakins, Ryder). 2nd revised, enlarged edition. Bibliography. 12 illustrations, xiv + 266 pp.
5% X 8. T200 Paperbound $1.65

STIEGEL GLASS, F. W. Hunter. The story of the most highly esteemed early American glass¬
ware, fully illustrated. How a German adventurer, “Baron" Stiegel, founded a glass empire;
detailed accounts of individual glasswork. “This pioneer work is reprinted in an edition
even more beautiful than the original," ANTIQUES DEALER. New introduction by Helen
McKearin. 171 illustrations, 12 in full color, xxii + 338pp. 7% x lO^St.

T128 Clothbound $10.00

THE HUMAN FIGURE, J. H. Vanderpoel. Not just a picture book, but a complete course by a
famous figure artist. Extensive text, illustrated by 430 pencil and charcoal drawings of
both male and female anatomy. 2nd enlarged edition. Foreword. 430 illus. 143pp. SVb x 9V<\.

T432 Paperbound $1.45

PINE FURNITURE OF EARLY NEW ENGLAND, R. H. Kettelt. Over 400 illustrations, over 50
working drawings of early New England chairs, benches, beds cupboards, mirrors, shelves,
tables, other furniture esteemed for simple beauty and character. “Rich store of illustra¬
tions . . . emphasizes the individuality and varied design," ANTIQUES. 413 illustrations,
55 working drawings. 475pp. 8 x 10%. T145 Clothbound $10.00

BASIC BOOKBINDING, A. W. Lewis. Enables both beginners and experts to rebind old books
or bind paperbacks in hard covers. Treats materials, tools; gives step-by-step instruction in
how to collate a book, sew it, back it, make boards, etc. 261 ilius. Appendices. 155pp.
5% X 8. T169 Paperbound $1.35

DESIGN MOTIFS OF ANCIENT MEXICO, J. Enciso. Nearly 90% of these 766 superb designs from
Aztec, Olmec, Totonac, Maya, and Toltec origins are unobtainable elsewhere! Contains
plumed serpents, wind gods, animals, demons, dancers, monsters, etc. Excellent applied
design source. Originally $17.50. 766 illustrations, thousands of motifs. 192pp. GVs x 9V4.

T84 Paperbound $1.85

AFRICAN SCULPTURE, Ladislas Segy. 163 full-page plates illustrating masks, fertility figures,
ceremonial objects, etc., of 50 West and Central African tribes—95% never before illustrated.
34-page introduction to African sculpture. “Mr. Segy is one of its top authorities," NEW
YORKER. 164 full-page photographic plates. Introduction. Bibliography. 244pp. 6i/fe x 9V4.

T396 Paperbound $2.00

THE PROCESSES OF GRAPHIC REPRODUCTION IN PRINTING, H. Curwen. A thorough and prac¬
tical survey of wood, linoleum, and rubber engraving; copper engraving; drypoint, mezzotint,
etching, aquatint, steel engraving, die sinking, stencilling, lithography (extensively); photo¬
graphic reproduction utilizing line, continuous tone, photoengravure. collotype; every other
process in general use. Note on color reproduction. Section on bookbinding. Over 200 illustra¬
tions, 25 in color. 143pp. SVa x 8 V 2 . T512 Clothbound $4.00

CALLIGRAPHY, J. G. Schwandner. First reprinting in 200 years of this legendary book of
beautiful handwriting. Over 300 ornamental initials, 12 complete calligraphic alphabets, over
150 ornate frames and panels, 75 calligraphic pictures of cherubs, stags, Hons, etc., thou¬
sands of flourishes, scrolls, etc., by the greatest 18th century masters. All material can be
copied or adapted without permission. Historical introduction. 158 full-page plates. 368pp.
9 X 13. T475 Clothbound $10.00

♦ ♦ ♦

A DIDEROT PICTORIAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TRADES AND INDUSTRY. Manufacturing and the
Technical Arts in Plates Selected from “L'Encyclop6die ou Dictionnaire Raisonn6 des Sciences,
des Arts, et des Metiers," of Denis Diderot, edited with text by C. Gillis.pie. Over 2000

illustrations on 485 full-page plates. Magnificent 18th century engravings of men, women,

and children working at such trades as milling flour, cheesemakmg, charcoal burning, mining,
silverplating, shoeing horses, making fine glass, printing, hundreds more, showing details

of machinery, different steps^ in sequence, etc. A remarkable art work, but also the largest
collection of working figures in print, copyright-free, for art directors, designers, etc.
Two vols. 920pp. 9 X 12. Heavy library cloth. T421 Two volume set $18.50

« ♦ ♦

SILK SCREEN TECHNIQUES, J. Biegeleisen, M. Cohn. A practical step-by-step home course in
one of the most versatile, least expensive graphic arts processes. How to build an inexpensive
silk screen, prepare stencils, print, achieve special textures, use color, etc. Every step

explained, diagrammed. 149 illustrations, 8 in color. 201pp. 6 Vs x 9^/4.

T433 Paperbound $1.45

CATALOG OF

PUZZLES, GAMES, AND ENTERTAINMENTS

MATHEMATICS, MAGIC AND MYSTERY, Martin Gardner. Astonishing teats ot mind reading,
mystifying “magic” tricks, are often based on mathematical principles anyone can learn.
This book shows you how to perform scores of tricks with cards, dice, coins, knots, numbers,
etc., by using simple principles from set theory, theory of numbers, topology, other areas
of mathematics, fascinating in themselves. No special knowledge required. 135 iilus. 186pp.
X 8. T335 Paperbound $1.00

MATHEMATICAL PUZZLES FOR BEGINNERS AND ENTHUSIASTS. G. Mott-Smoth. Test your
problem-solving techniques and powers of inference on 188 challenging, arrujsing puzzles
based on algebra, dissection of plane figures, permutations, probabilities, etc. Appendix of
primes, square roots, etc. 135 iilus. 2nd revised edition. 248pp. 5% x 8.

T198 Paperbound $1.00

LEARN CHESS FROM THE MASTERS, F. Reinfeld. Play 10 games against Marshall, Bronstein,
Najdorf, other masters, and grade yourself on each move. Detailed annotations reveal prin¬
ciples of play, strategy, etc. as you proceed. An excellent way to get a real insight into the
game. Formerly titled, “Chess by Yourself.” 91 diagrams, vii 4- 144pp. 5% x 8.

T362 Paperbound $1.00

REINFELD ON THE END GAME IN CHESS, F. Reinfeld. 62 end games of Alekhine, Tarrasch.
Morphy, other masters, are carefully analyzed with emphasis on transition from middle
game to end play. Tempo moves, queen endirvgs. weak squares, other basic principles clearly
illustrated. Excellent for understanding why some moves aie weak or incorrect, how to avoid
errors. Formerly titled, “Practical End-game Play.” 62 diagrams, vi -F 177pp. 5% x 8.

T417 Paperbound $1.25

101 PUZZLES IN THOUGHT AND LOGIC. C. R. Wylie, Jr. Brand new puzzles you need no special
knowledge to solve! Each one Is a gem of ingenuity that will really challenge your problem¬
solving technique. Introduction with simplified explanation of scientic puzzle solving. 128pp.
5.3/b X 8. T167 Paperbound $1.00

THE COMPLETE NONSENSE OF EDWARD LEAR. The only complete edition of this master of
gentle madness at a popular price. The Dong with the Luminous Nose, The Jumblies, The
Owl and the Pussycat, hundreds of other bits of wonderful nonsense. 214 limericks, 3 sets
of Nonsense Botany. 5 Nonsense Alphabets, 546 fantastic drawings, mi/th more. 320pp.
5% X 8. T167 Paperbound $1.00

28 SCIENCE FICTION STORIES OF H. G. WELLS. Two complete novels, “Men Like Gods” and
“Star Begotten," plus 26 short stories by the master science-fiction writer of all time.
Stories of space, time, future adventure that are among the all-time classics of science
fiction. 928pp. 5% x 8. T265 Clothbound $3.95

SEVEN SCIENCE FICTION NOVELS, H. G. Wells. Unabridged texts of “The Time Machine,”
"The Island of Dr. Moreau,” “First Men in the Moon,” “The Invisible Man,” "The War
of the Worlds,” “The Food of the Gods,” “In the Days of the 'Comet.” "One will have to go
far to match this for entertainment, excitement, and sheer pleasure,” N. Y. TIMES. 1015pp.
5% x 8. T264 Clothbound $3.95

MATHEMAGIC, MAGIC PUZZLES, AND GAMES WITH NUMBERS. R. V. Heath. More than 60 new
puzzles and stunts based on number properties: multiplying large numbers mentally, finding
the date of any day in the year, etc. Edited by J. S. Meyer. 76 iilus. 129pp. 5% x 8.

TllO Paperbound $1.00

FIVE ADVENTURE NOVELS OF H. RIDER HAGGARD. The master story-teller’s five best tales of
mystery and adventure set against authentic African backgrounds: "She,” "King Solomon's
Mines,” "Allan Quatermain,” "Allan’s Wife,” “Maiwa's Revenge.” 821pp. 5% x 8.

T108 Clothbound $3.95

WIN AT CHECKERS, M. Hopper. (Formerly "Checkers.”) The former World’s Unrestricted
Checker Champion gives you valuable lessons in openings, traps, end games, ways to draw
when you are behind, etc. More than 100 questions and answers anticipate your problems.
Appendix. 75 problems diagrammed, solved. 79 figures, xi + 107pp. 5% x 8.

T363 Paperbound $1.00

CRYPTOGRAPHY, L. 0. Smith. Excellent introductory work on ciphers and their solution,
history of secret writing, techniques, etc. Appendices on Japanese methods, the Baconian
cipher, frequency tables. Bibliography. Over 150 problems, solutions. 160pp. 5% x 8.

T247 Paperbound $1.00

CRYPTANALYSIS, H. F. Gaines. (Formerly, “Elementary Cryptanalysis.”) The best book available
on cryptograms and how to solve them. Contains all major techniques: substitution, transposi¬
tion, mixed alphabets, multafid, Kasiski and Vignere methods, etc. Word frequency appendix.
167 problems, solutions. 173 figures. 236pp. 54% x 8. T97 Paperbound $1.95

FLATLANO, E. A. Abbot. The science-fiction classic of life in a 2-dimensional world that is
considered a first-rate introduction to relativity and hyperspace, as well as a scathing
satire on society, politics and religion. 7th edition. 16 iilus. 128pp. 54% x 8.

T1 Paperbound $1.00

DOVER BOOKS

HOW TO FORCE CHECKMATE, F. Reinfeld. (Formerly “Challenge to Chessplayers.") No board
needed to sharpen your checkmate skill on 300 checkmate situations. Learn to plan up to
3 moves ahead and play a superior end game. 300 situations diagrammed; notes and full
solutions. 111pp. 5% x 8. T439 Paperbound $1.25

MORPHY'S GAMES OF CHESS, P. W. Sergeant, ed. Play forcefully by following the techniques
used by one of«the greatest chess champions. 300 of Morphy’s games carefully annotated to
reveal principles. Bibliography. New introduction by F. Reinfeld. 235 diagrams, x 4- 352pp.
5% X 8. 1386 Paperbound $1.75

MATHEMATICAL RECREATIONS, M. Kraitchik. Hundreds of unusual mathematical puzzlers and
odd bypaths of math, elementary and advanced. Greek, Medieval, Arabic, Hindu problems;
figurate numbers, Fermat numbers, primes: magic, Euler, Latin squares; fairy chess, latruncles,
reversi, jinx, ruma, tetrachrome other positional and permutational games. Rigorous solutions.
Revised second edition. 181 illus. 330pp. 5% x 8. T163 Paperbound $1.75

MATHEMATICAL EXCURSIONS. H. A. Merrill. Revealing stimulating insights into elementary
math, not usually taught in school. 90 problems demonstrate Russian peasant multiplication,
memory systems for pi, magic squares, dyadic systems, division by inspection, many more.
Solutions to difficult problems. 50 illus. SVe x 8. T350 Paperbound $1.00

MAGIC TRICKS A CARO TRICKS, W. Jonson. Best introduction to tricks with coins, bills,
eggs, ribbons, slates, cards, easily performed without elaborate equipment. Professional
routines, tips on presentation, misdirection, etc. Two books bound as one-. 52 tricks with
cards, 37 tricks with common objects, 106 figures. 224pp. 5% x 8. T909 Paperbound $1.00

MATHEMATICAL PUZZLES OF SAM LOYO, selected and edited by M. Gardner. 177 most ingenious
mathematical puzzles of America's greatest puzzle originator, based on arithmetic, algebra,
game theory, dissection, route tracing, operations research, probability, etc. 120 drawings,
diagrams. Solutions. 187pp. 54ti x 8. T498 Paperbound $1.00

THE ART OF CHESS, J. Mason. The most famous general study of chess ever written. More
than 90 openings, middle game, end game, how to attack, sacrifice, defend, exchange, form
general strategy. Supplement on “How Do You Play Chess?’’ by F. Reinfeld. 448 diagrams.
356pp. 5% X 8. T463 Paperbound $1.85

HYPERMOOERN CHESS as Developed in the Games of its Greatest Exponent, ARON NIMZOVICH,
F. Reinfeld, ed. Learn how the game’s greatest innovator defeated Alekhine. Lasker, and
many others; and use these methods in your own game. 180 diagrams. 228pp. 5% x 8.

T448 Paperbound $1.35

A TREASURY OF CHESS LORE, F. Reinfeld, ed. Hundreds of fascinating stories by and about
the masters, accounts of tournaments and famous games, aphorisms, word portraits, little
known incidents, photographs, etc., that will delight the chess enthusiast, captivate the
beginner. 49 photographs (14 full-page plates), 12 diagrams. 315pp. 5% x 8.

T458 Paperbound $1.75

A NONSENSE ANTHOLOGY, collected by Carolyn Weils. 245 of the best nonsense verses ever
written: nonsense puns, absurd arguments, mock epics, nonsense ballads, “sick’’ verses, dog-
Latin verses, French nonsense verses, limericks. Lear, Carroll, Belloc, Burgess, nearly 100
other writers. Introduction by Carolyn Wells. 3 indices: Title, Author, First Lines, xxxiii ■+•
279pp. 5% X 8. T499 Paperbound $1.25

SYMBOLIC LOGIC and THE GAME OF LOGIC, Lewis Carroll. Two delightful puzzle books by
the author of “Alice,” bound as one. Both works concern the symbolic representation of
traditional logic and together contain more than 500 ingenious, amusing and instructive
syllogistic puzzlers. Total o1 326pp. x 8. T492 Paperbound $1.50

PILLOW PROBLEMS and A TANGLED TALE, Lewis Carroll. Two of Carroll’s rare puzzle works
bound as one. “Pillow Problems” contain 72 original math puzzles. The puzzles in "A Tangled
Tale” are given in delightful story form. Total of 291pp. 5% x 8. T493 Paperbound $1.50

PECK'S BAD BOY AND HIS PA, G. W. Peck. Both volumes of one of the most widely read
of all American humor books. A classic of American folk humor, also invaluable as a portrait
of an age. 100 original illustrations. Introduction by E. Bleiler. 347pp. 5% x 8.

T497 Paperbound $1.35

Dover qtuhliahes hooks on art, jnusie, philoaophff, literature, languagen, history, social
sciences, j)sychology, handcrafts, orientaiia, puzzles and entertainments, chess, pets
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ematical jthysics, engineering, biological sciences, earth sciences, classics of science, etc.
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Political Parlies, Robert Michels $2.00
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Philosophical Writings of Peirce, C. S. Peirce $1.95
The Heart of Emerson’s Journals, edited by Illiss Perry $I.S5
Primitive Man as Philosopher, Paul Radin $2.00
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